and communication with others (Mead 1934; Schwandt 2007). Language, gestures, and physical objects can all influence the meaning one person takes from a situation, which will affect how they respond.
Dramaturgy uses theater as a metaphor to examine and understand the meaning in social interactions. Using workplaces to observe human behavior, Goffman (1959) explored how situations prompt expected roles, behavior, and expressions. Using a dramaturgical framework, a “front region” is an area or situation that interacts with customers, and a “back region” or “backstage” is a setting that is out of view from customers. Working in a backstage role requires technical expertise, while working in a front region requires expressive skill. Goffman notes that, “… in those interactions where the individual presents a product to others, he will tend to show them only the end product, and they will be led into judging him on the basis of something that has been finished, polished, and packaged” (44). Co‐workers will work as teams to help project this polished impression – putting our best foot forward – which grants the team and its organization legitimacy in the eyes of those observing.
Applying the precepts of dramaturgy to fundraising yields four key assertions (Hansen 2018).
First, that fundraisers incorporate an understanding of the importance of first impressions into their work.
Second, that fundraisers actively frame situations to suggest a plan for cooperative action. This may include describing a situation, a frame for interpreting it, and an opportunity to act on that interpretation. For example, a fundraiser might describe a problem, how the organization can help address it, and ask the donor for monetary support.
Third, that the fundraiser, the organization, and the clients who will benefit from cooperative action must all be seen as having character that aligns with being worthy of support. For instance, when fundraisers, organizations, and clients are seen as trustworthy, and the cause is easy to sympathize with, the situation is beneficial to fundraising activities.
And fourth, that fundraisers must be sensitive to prospective donors' likely reactions, seeing themselves as prospective donors to evaluate how a letter, a call, an event, or any other situation will be seen, and if it will support a meaning that aligns with asking for cooperative action, a gift of time or money.
Taking these together makes clear the importance of taking the donor's perspective to try to understand how they will interpret communication – the words, the timing, the “costumes,” the “setting,” even the background music. Do all of these align to resonate with the donor's understanding of an important cause, and support their choice to act? It's probably not surprising that one of the metaphors fundraisers commonly use to describe their work is that of the choreographer (Breeze 2017).
A dramaturgical analysis also highlights that a discordant note can ring false with the donor. Something unexpected or out of place can be jarring, disrupting a potential donor's support for a worthwhile cause. For those organizations addressing change and social justice, there is an inherent tension, since the welcoming tone and controversy avoidance that may help attract and cultivate new donors can also perpetuate injustices (Hansen 2018). Dramaturgy suggests the importance of expressive competence – of finding the way to take donors' perspectives and understand likely impressions while also being honest and true to mission that is community centered. This skillful balance on the part of fundraisers paves the road to cooperative action.
Conclusion
Many theories address why people engage in philanthropy as donors, and these also inform fundraising. For example, empirical evidence shows that being asked is key to the act of making gifts (Adloff 2016). Less attention has focused on theories of how fundraising functions, and its social implications. As Russell James III (2017) noted, theoretical guidance is perhaps less important for quick, transactional models of fundraising, but can contribute greatly to aspects of fundraising that rely on developing longer term, nuanced relationships.
The process of developing and testing theoretical frameworks to help understand fundraising is ongoing (Mack, Kelly, and Wilson 2016). Many of these theories are extensions or refinements of theories originally used in other situations. Systems theory is a reminder that organizations are part of a greater environment requiring boundary spanning to ensure adequate financial resources. Resource dependence theory highlights potential power implications of revenue portfolios. Gift theory examines the social exchange aspects of philanthropy, indicating that fundraisers and donors live in a relational society. Identification theory looks to the importance of affirming a donor's sense of self and the role of communities of participation in expanding how a donor identifies with others. Dramaturgy emphasizes the importance of symbolic meaning, and how fundraisers can encourage an atmosphere and framing that aligns the importance of the cause with the donor's interests.
Taken together, these theories undergird the importance of relationships in fundraising. They imply a duty of care to donors, to treat them as whole people with personal values and preferences. They also imply a duty of care to the organizations and those they serve.
Discussion Questions
1 What are some ways in which reciprocity plays a role in how fundraisers and donors interact? Provide specific examples from your experience.
2 How can fundraisers activate a donor's identity with regard to other donors? To an organization's clients? To the organization itself? What theories apply?
3 We tend to find it easy to support others who share a social identity. What implications might this have for fundraising practice? Are any of those implications in tension with an organization's mission or other social concerns? If so, how might fundraisers and administrators mitigate those tensions?
Application Exercises
1 Make a table of different fundraising functions and/or solicitation vehicles, such as annual fund mailings, major gift solicitation, and so on. Place the theories from this chapter under the headings for the situations in which they might be most useful. List at least one new tactic based on the theories in this chapter.
2 Assume you work for a university. You are planning to meet with a donor who is an alumna of the English department and has established a scholarship fund for nontraditional students in honor of her mother. Her graduating class is nearing its 35th reunion. What topics or ideas do you want to include in your planned discussion? Use at least two theories from this chapter to analyze your choices for the meeting plan.
CHAPTER FIVE THE JOY OF GIVING
By Sara Konrath
“It is more blessed to give than to receive.”
~Acts 20:35
“Most people would rather give than get affection.”
~Aristotle
The belief that it is better to give than to receive has a long history, with examples from ancient religious texts and philosophers. The earliest known scientific evidence, from the early 1970s, discovered that people learned faster when doing so helped someone avoid suffering – such altruism was motivating and rewarding. This chapter reviews scientific research on how giving time and money affects givers.
The chapter will help readers
