progress in quantifying the potential of urban forests to mitigate urban CO2 emissions. Urban Climate 8: 100–125.119 Wolman, A. (1965). The metabolism of cities. Scientific American 213 (3): 179–190.
120 Wong, P.P.‐Y., Lai, P.‐C., Low, C.‐T. et al. (2016). The impact of environmental and human factors on urban heat and microclimate variability. Building and Environment 95: 199–208.
121 Wu, J.G. (2013). The state‐of‐the‐science in urban ecology and sustainability: a landscape perspective. Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (6): 298–303.
122 Yang, G., Yu, Z., Jørgensen, G., and Vejre, H. (2020). How can urban blue‐green space be planned for climate adaption in high‐latitude cities? A seasonal perspective. Sustainable Cities and Society 53: 101932.
123 Yu, Z., Guo, X., Jørgensen, G., and Vejre, H. (2017). How can urban green spaces be planned for climate adaptation in subtropical cities? Ecological Indicators 82: 152–162.
124 Zhao, L., Lee, X., Smith, R.B., and Oleson, K. (2014). Strong contributions of local background climate to urban heat islands. Nature 511: 216–219.
125 Zhao, S., Tang, Y., and Chen, A. (2016). Carbon storage and sequestration of urban street trees in Beijing, China. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 4: 1–8.
126 Zhou, W., Wang, J., and Cadenasso, M.L. (2017). Effects of the spatial configuration of trees on urban heat mitigation: a comparative study. Remote Sensing of Environment 195: 1–12.
127 Zipperer, W.C., Morse, W.C., and Gaither, J.G. (2011). Linking social and ecological systems. In: Urban Ecology: Patterns, Processes, and Applications (eds. J. Niemelä, J.H. Breuste, T. Elmqvist, et al.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Web links
1 Scopus database (2021). https://www.scopus.com/results/results.uri?sid=7bafb47309c29c7ec0444cd42ebf2afd&src=s&sot=b&sdt=b&origin=searchbasic&rr=&sl=51&s=TITLE‐ABS‐KEY(%22Urban%20ecology%22%20AND%20%22Climate%20change%22)&searchterm1=%22Urban%20ecology%22%20AND%20%22Climate%20change%22&searchTerms=&connectors=&field1=TITLE_ABS_KEY&fields= (accessed 13 June 2021).
2 Web of Science Core Collection database (2021). https://www.webofscience.com/wos/woscc/summary/d7ee688e‐5928‐4013‐8a00‐75055184c8f8‐0dcf753b/relevance/1 (accessed 13 June 2021).
2 Climate Change, Urbanisation, and Their Impact on Increased Occurrence of Cardiometabolic Syndrome*
Saptamita P. Choudhury1,2, Arisha Arora3,4, Nishi Jain2,5, and Sanjay Kumar Dey2
1 School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
2 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
3 Department of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
4 Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam, India
5 Department of Biotechnology, Amity University‐, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
2.1 Introduction
Environmental factors act as key facilitators for chronic non‐communicable diseases. Similarly, urbanisation and climate change exaggerate the occurrences of such disorders. Over 60% of the world's population resides in cities and towns due to the huge rise in global development, and this proportion is going to increase up to 90% over the next few years (Nieuwenhuijsen 2018). Urban areas are the source of new discoveries and economic development but are also sources of pollution and diseases. With increasing population, human activities are also contributing to a major climate change. Climate changes are one of the defining issues of time and we are at the defining moment. The need for private vehicles is increasing day by day in order to have proper time management, to do work at a faster pace, and to maintain safety. According to the World Heart Federation report on urbanisation and cardiovascular diseases (CVD), human activities are changing with emerging urbanisation which results in pollution, loss of biodiversity, disturbance in ecosystem, and also Earth's temperature has elevated by the range of 0.85 °C approximately withinside the twentieth century and most of this warming came about by the year 1975 (De Blois et al. 2015). Over the last 30 years, the Global warming rate has increased by about 0.18 °C (De Blois et al. 2015). This was triggered by the poor development of infrastructures and less functional public transportation, lack of space, green areas, overuse of natural resources like coal, petroleum, global warming, etc. (Figure 2.1). All these are finally leading to subsequent higher rates of cardiovascular‐related morbidity and mortality (Nieuwenhuijsen 2018). However, newer cardiometabolic treatments and therapeutic approaches can also help to reduce the burden of these syndromes (De Blois et al. 2015). To bring cardiometabolic syndrome‐related risks under control, there are certain opportunities as well as challenges which have been described in this chapter.
Figure 2.1 An overview of the various factors that are responsible for urbanisation and climate change finally leading to cardiometabolic syndrome.
2.2 Overview of Cardiometabolic Syndromes
Cardiometabolic syndrome is a cluster of insulin resistance and restricted high cholesterol responsiveness, elevated fasting, and epilepsy, which are all factors that influence glucose metabolism characterised by metabolic dysfunction. Often a list of cardiometabolic syndrome threats for individuals arises with glucose sensitivity. Individuals having cardiometabolic syndrome are substantially more likely to suffer from metabolic syndrome and twice as likely to have a sudden cardiac arrest (World Heart Federation 2015). The manufacturing and livestock revolutions in history produced more cholesterol‐rich crops and carbs for intake than humanity needs (Miles et al. 2019). The addition of processed carbs, an abundance of saturated fats, and the shift from predator to civilised people have all led to the growth of obesity. According to the Global Burden of Disease report, India's adult cardiometabolic syndrome disease burden of 272 per 100 000 population was higher than the global average (Prabhakaran et al. 2016).
2.3 Pathophysiology of Cardiometabolic Syndromes
A multitude of pathophysiological cardiometabolic variables have been correlated with the severity of cardiovascular events. The variance of fat cells is a critical aspect of cardiometabolic risk. The cardiac syndrome's most prominent interpretation is abdominal obesity. Adipose tissue is also an endocrine organ that expels adipokines which make a contribution to the atherogenic/diabetic physiological risk level attributed to hyperlipidaemia. A mismatch between energy consumption and expenditure contributes to abdominal fat. The pathogenicity of hyperglycaemia and hyperlipidaemia correlated with the cardiometabolic syndrome is probably triggered by variations
