however, improbable that it may be as great as in Europe. My friend A. C. Swinton, Esq., while working in the then almost unknown gold-field of Maryborough, Victoria, in January, 1855, found a fragment of a well-formed stone axe resting on the metamorphic schistose bed-rock about five feet beneath the surface. It was overlain by the compact gravel drift called by the miners "cement," and by an included layer of hard iron-stained sandstone. The fragment is about an inch and three-eighths wide and the same length, and is of very hard fine-grained black basalt. One side is ground to a very smooth and regular surface, terminating in a well-formed cutting edge more than an inch long, the return face of the cutting part being about a quarter of an inch wide. The other side is a broken surface. The weapon appears to have been an axe or tomahawk closely resembling that figured at p. 335 of Lumholtz's Among Cannibals, from Central Queensland. The fragment was discovered by Mr. Swinton and the late Mr. Mackworth Shore, one of the discoverers of the gold-field, before any rush to it had taken place, and it seems impossible to avoid the conclusion that it was formed prior to the deposit of the gravel drift and iron-stained sandstone under which it lay. This would indicate a great antiquity of man in Australia, and would enable us to account for the fossilised remains of the dingo in Pleistocene deposits as those of an animal introduced by man.
9
These facts are taken from a memoir on The Mammals and Winter Birds of Florida, by J. A. Allen; forming Vol. II., No. 3, of the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
10
The great variation in wild animals is more fully discussed and illustrated in the author's Darwinism (Chapter III.).
11
See Ibis, 1879, p. 32.
12
In Mr. Seebohm's latest work, Birds of the Japanese Empire (1890), he says, "Examples from North China are indistinguishable from those obtained in Greece" (p. 82).
13
Ibis, 1879, p. 40. In his Birds of the Japanese Empire (1890), Mr. Seebohm classes the Japanese and European forms as E. schœniclus, and thinks that their range is probably continuous across the two continents.
14
Lyell's Principles of Geology, ii., p. 369.
15
Mr. Darwin found that the large Helix pomatia lived after immersion in sea-water for twenty days. It is hardly likely that this is the extreme limit of their powers of endurance, but even this would allow of their being floated many hundred miles at a stretch, and if we suppose the shell to be partially protected in the crevice of a log of wood, and to be thus out of water in calm weather, the distance might extend to a thousand miles or more. The eggs of fresh-water mollusca, as well as the young animals, are known to attach themselves to the feet of aquatic birds, and this is probably the most efficient cause of their very wide diffusion.
16
Principles of Geology, 11th Ed., Vol. I., p. 258.
17
On Limestone as an Index of Geological Time.
18
In his Preliminary Report on Oceanic Deposit, Mr. Murray says:—"It has been found that the deposits taking place near continents and islands have received their chief characteristics from the presence of the debris of adjacent lands. In some cases these deposits extend to a distance of over 150 miles from the coast." (Proceedings of the Royal Society, Vol. XXIV. p. 519.)
"The materials in suspension appear to be almost entirely deposited within 200 miles of the land." (Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1876-77, p. 253.)
19
Geographical Evolution. (Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society. 1879, p. 426.)
20
Professor Dana was, I believe, the first to point out that the regions which, after long undergoing subsidence and accumulating vast piles of sedimentary deposit have been elevated into mountain ranges, thereby become stiff and unyielding, and that the next depression and subsequent upheaval will be situated on one or the other sides of it; and he has shown that, in North America, this is the case with all the mountains of the successive geological formations. Thus, depressions, and elevations of extreme slowness but often of vast amount, have occurred successively in restricted adjacent areas; and the effect has been to bring each portion in succession beneath the ocean but always bordered on one or both sides by the remainder of the continent, from the denudation of which the deposits are formed which, on the subsequent upheaval, become mountain ranges. (Manual of Geology, 2nd Ed., p. 751.)
21
Nature, Vol. II., p. 297.
22
Sir W. Thomson, Voyage of Challenger, Vol. II., p. 374.
23
The following is the analysis of the chalk at Oahu:—
This chalk consists simply of comminuted corals and shells of the reef. It has been examined microscopically and found to be destitute of the minute organisms abounding in the chalk of England. (Geology of the United States Exploring Expedition, p. 150.) Mr. Guppy also found chalk-like coral limestones containing 95 p.c. of carbonate of lime in the Solomon Islands.
The absence of Globigerinæ is a local phenomenon. They are quite absent in the Arafura Sea, and no Globigerina-ooze was found in any of the enclosed seas of the Pacific, but with these exceptions the Globigerinæ "are really found all over the bottom of the ocean." (Murray on Oceanic Deposits—Proceedings of Royal Society, Vol. XXIV., p. 523.)
The above analysis shows a far closer resemblance to chalk than that of the Globigerina-ooze of the Atlantic, four specimens of which given by Sir W. Thomson (Voyage of the Challenger Vol. II. Appendix, pp. 374-376, Nos. 9, 10, 11 and 12) from the mid-Atlantic, show the following proportions:—
In addition to the above there is a quantity of insoluble residue consisting of small particles of sanidine, augite, hornblende, and magnetite, supposed to be the product of volcanic dust or ashes carried either in the air or by ocean currents. This volcanic matter amounts to from 4.60 to 8.33 per cent. of the Globigerina-ooze of the mid-Atlantic, where it seems to be always present; and the small proportion of similar matter in true chalk is another proof that its origin is different, and that it was deposited far more rapidly than the oceanic ooze.
The following analysis of chalk by Mr. D. Forbes will show the difference between the two formations:—
(From Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, Vol. XXVII.)
The large proportion of carbonate of lime, and the very small quantity of silica, alumina, and insoluble débris, at once distinguish true chalk from the Globigerina-ooze of the deep ocean bed.
24
Notes on Reticularian Rhizopoda; in Microscopical Journal, Vol. XIX., New Series, p. 84.
25
Proceedings of the Royal Society, Vol. XXIV. p. 532.
26
See Presidential Address in Sect. D. of British Association at Plymouth, 1877.
27
Geological Magazine, 1871, p. 426.
28
In his lecture on Geographical Evolution (which was published after the greater part of this chapter had been written) Sir Archibald Geikie expresses views in complete accordance with those here advocated. He says:—"The next long era, the Cretaceous, was more remarkable for slow accumulation of rock under the sea than for the formation of new land. During that time the Atlantic sent its waters across the whole of Europe and into Asia. But they were probably nowhere more than a few hundred feet deep over the site of our continent, even at their deepest part. Upon their bottom there gathered a vast mass of calcareous mud, composed in great part of foraminifera, corals, echinoderms, and molluscs. Our English chalk, which ranges across the north of France, Belgium, Denmark, and the north of Germany, represents a portion of the deposits
however, improbable that it may be as great as in Europe. My friend A. C. Swinton, Esq., while working in the then almost unknown gold-field of Maryborough, Victoria, in January, 1855, found a fragment of a well-formed stone axe resting on the metamorphic schistose bed-rock about five feet beneath the surface. It was overlain by the compact gravel drift called by the miners "cement," and by an included layer of hard iron-stained sandstone. The fragment is about an inch and three-eighths wide and the same length, and is of very hard fine-grained black basalt. One side is ground to a very smooth and regular surface, terminating in a well-formed cutting edge more than an inch long, the return face of the cutting part being about a quarter of an inch wide. The other side is a broken surface. The weapon appears to have been an axe or tomahawk closely resembling that figured at p. 335 of Lumholtz's 