After Caesar’s assassination in 45 BCE Rome no longer was a republic, and became an empire under Caesar’s nephew Augustus in 31 BCE. Its territory – expanded to a total of 6.5 million square miles – included lands from North Africa at its southern limits to the Middle East, and north to Britain. This empire was relatively stable until the fourth century when it was beset by economic crisis and attacks from Germanic tribes and the Persian Empire.66
Rome included an opportunity for citizenship for many who were willing to become players in the greatest and most civilized society yet known. Though not a democracy in the sense we use the word today, Rome had many democratic elements that included a greater number of citizens than any civilization to that time. This marks a major advance in democracy’s progess.
The difference in lifestyle and political outlook between the West and East had been noted as early as Hippocrates (c460-c370 BCE), who stated that the Westerners were aggressive and liberty-loving while those from the East were more wise and peace-loving.67
Early Christians spread throughout the ancient world, amidst much persecution, after the conversion of Paul in about 33 CE.68 Paul, who previously persecuted Christians, describes his conversion in the Christian Bible:
For you have heard of my previous life in Judaism, how I persecuted the Church of God violently and tried to destroy it; and I advanced in Judaism beyond many of my own age among my people, so extremely zealous was I for the traditions of my fathers. But He who had set me apart before I was born, and had called me through His grace, was pleased to reveal his Son to me, in order that I might preach Him among the Gentiles.69
Wines were produced by the Etruscans in Central Italy from at least the eighth century BCE. The Romans produced and exported wine to large areas of what is now Europe. Bacchanalian revelry in the early Roman republic resulted in such debauchery that it was outlawed, but not to great effect since the revelers often were the law makers. By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries Italian wine was exported by merchants at considerable profit.
There is almost no region untouched by vineyards in Italy. The quality control system that was introduced in 1963 helped to standardize a market that was often confusing for consumers and sometimes fraudulent. The most famous and sought-after Italian wines are those in Tuscany, which produces Chianti and Brunello di Montalcino from sangiovese grapes, and the Piedmont region which produces long-lived Barolo and Barbaresco from nebbiolo grapes. A more recent addition is the Super Tuscans, made from Bordeaux grapes such as cabernet sauvignon. Wine, Pages 334-35
In 313 CE, the Emperor Constantine, a new convert to Christianity, gave freedom of worship to Christians. He renamed Byzantium as Constantinople – at a meeting point of Europe and Asia – in 330 CE. Christianity became the official religion of the empire in 380 under Theodosius. After his death it was divided into its western and eastern divisions which stand today as the Roman and Eastern Churches.70
Soon Rome, like much of Europe, was invaded numerous times by marauding tribes. The Middle Ages – with its well-known decline – began at this time. But Roman law, administered by judges who aimed at some degree of fairness and equal treatment, generally remained in place, rather than rule only by the local nobles or kings.71 In many ways, Christendom filled in to provide moral guidance throughout Europe as the influence of Rome waned.72
The writings of Saint Augustine (354-430) did much to cement the reputation of Christianity in the West. His Confessions, which tell of his conversion, convinced many that the Kingdom of God was more worthy of devotion than attention to earthly matters.73
Boethius (484-520), a member of the Roman aristocracy, continued to copy the works of Aristotle and other Greeks, ensuring their survival. The distillation of known information, which led to a spread – and thus democratization – of knowledge, was collected and distributed by the encyclopedists of the day.74
The Roman calendar was still in use in the West until the sixth century, when the monk Dionysius the Little determined that, in a Christian world, the calendar should be dated from the birth of Jesus. He established the seven-day week to reflect the time it took to create the world. Church bells began to mark the hour of the day, allowing villagers to organize their activities in sync with Church worship and each other.75
Pope Gregory (c. 540-604), who also was a general, defended much of what was left of the Roman Empire in an attempt to introduce religious and humanitarian ideas. He sent representatives throughout Europe to convert pagans wherever possible. In addition to his many reforms he originated Gregorian Chant.76
For much of the first millennium there were no clear countries with borders in what eventually was called Europe, but a collection of settlements that were periodically invaded and changed governance, depending on the success of the latest invaders.77 Christendom continued to be split between the Eastern and Western Churches.78
The central administration of the Romans yielded to fiefdoms throughout what eventually became Western Europe, and for most people there was little communication with the world beyond their immediate vicinity. Most of the goods needed by the lords and serfs of the estates were produced locally. The Roman roads, which had been solid and straight to allow the movement of troops, deteriorated into dirt paths that discouraged communication and commerce.79 Eventually landlords needed to introduce small reforms in their contracts with their serfs because of a shrinking labor market.
Feudalism provided a degree of protection from the waves of barbarian marauders and an opportunity for a relatively stable life. It was based on a contract between the lord and tenant – protection in exchange for services such as working the land. A breach of contract by feudal lords led to occasional revolts among peasants.80
Within the family, the Church forbade marriage between close relatives and committed married couples to continue their vows for a lifetime. The Church also encouraged the contribution of property to itself of those who died without heirs, which added to its immense wealth. One-third of the farmland in France was in Church hands at the end of the seventh century.81
England, like the rest of Europe after the fall of Rome, was at first divided into self-governing tribes. Households were grouped into villages with the king at the head of such tribes as Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Celts. They were governed by tribal laws, with compensation due to the injured based on the nature of the injury.
Germany also had similar tribal law in place which included retaliation not just against the perpetrator but against the criminal’s family. The introduction of Christianity provided greater equality and morality via models of saints who taught compassion and equality rather than retribution, although clearly that model often was not followed. The conversion of the pagans in Eastern Europe was not complete until 1417.82
The third major monotheistic religion, Islam, was founded by the Prophet Muhammad after his revelation and vision of the One God in the year 610 near Mecca, in Saudi Arabia. At first he was persecuted and ridiculed by believers in the traditional gods who were members of the local nomadic tribes. But by 628 he was able to march with 10,000 followers on Mecca in a primarily peaceful takeover of that city during which idols were smashed by him and his followers. By his death in 632, most of the Arabian Peninsula had been converted to Islam, some via war
