the “scientific method” by introducing optical and chemical experiments at Oxford and Paris, but he ran afoul of religious authorities and was forbidden to continue his work. William of Ockham developed the idea that knowledge only should be based on observation and described in the briefest and clearest way possible – thus “Ockham’s razor.”126
Yet for hundreds of years the western world still was not free of belief in magic and superstition. Enlightened ideas did not penetrate to all levels of the population. Religious beliefs – including that of “original sin” – continued to supersede belief in science and block its path at many turns.127
Ancient writings – particularly those of Aristotle – that had been preserved by Arabic scholars were passed on in the late twelfth century.128 The need for improved record keeping due to the expansion of trade led to the establishment of schools that emphasized mathematical skills. A pioneer in this field was Leonardo Fibonacci, who traveled on business throughout Southern Europe in the early 1200s and used symbols that were originated by the Hindus and then passed on by the Arabs – what we now call Arabic numerals – starting with 0 and going up to 9, without which modern math would be impossible.129
During the Middle Ages there were a number of revolts, led mainly by relatively well-off peasants – not the poorest – who believed that their rights and economic conditions were being threatened. In the cities, where many peasants had migrated, there was discontent due to increasing poverty, poor living conditions, and taxes, which led to trade unions and revolts from the 1200s up until the time of the French Revolution.130
A generally growing prosperity allowed Europeans to begin reaching out to the rest of the world. The Venetian Polo brothers traveled and traded with Ceylon, the Mongols and possibly China. Merchants from Venice, Genoa and Catalan set out to import spices, with over a hundred mentioned in the chronicles of the time. They were used for medicinal purposes, embalming the dead, and of course for preserving and enhancing food. Citrus fruits and cane sugar also were imported which led to a higher standard of living.131
A more urban Europe emerged, centered around towns. People benefited from the trade that increasingly took place at the town centers, and more children benefited from schools that provided an education in basic skills.132 Universities flourished in such places as Bologna, Naples, Paris, Oxford, Cambridge, Lisbon and Salamanca, at first under the local bishops but eventually more independently of the Church. Their earlier teachings were influenced by Aristotle, who emphasized reason and inquiry over faith.133
Book formats were revised and became more user-friendly. They began including chapters and indexes and were more widely available, thus leading to a broader democratization of knowledge. Parchment eventually was replaced by paper at a fraction of the cost. For the first time books were read by individuals for pleasure; one did not have to be of the noble classes in order to learn. Women were allowed to read devotional books. Encyclopedias also developed as compendiums of the state of knowledge.134
Towns became the dwelling places of freemen – those freed from the encumbrances of feudal serfdom. Towns also reflected a concern for cleanliness – not always fulfilled – with the streets being paved, rubbish and waste water having a means of disposal. The few largest cities had populations of about 200,000, but the bulk of Western Europeans lived in small towns. There was as yet no appreciation of things natural; the woods were a place to be feared, but the beauty of the creation of towns was generally admired. Agricultural surpluses allowed more peasants to move to the towns as general prosperity grew amidst the increase in skilled craftsmen who could ply their trades in leather, clothing, barbering, metal working, jewelry, baked goods, meats, cheeses, spices, and medicines. Inns began to provide drink and food and a bed for travelers.135 Thus the needs of the average person were increasingly addressed.
In England, local taxes were collected and used for creating town improvements such as roads and walls. This was a time of relative equality in which most town-dwellers were expected to contribute to civic expenses. The town was more democratic than the feudal model, although there was considerable inequality between classes – such as merchants and craftsmen – which grew throughout the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, the townspeople benefited from an economic flow that included an egalitarian encounter in the marketplace where many had something to trade in exchange for something they needed or wanted.136 Despite many abuses, there was a growing sense of belief that the government and its laws were fair, including an increasing sense of national spirit.137
Efforts at greater equality were not seen in most other European countries at the time, such as France, where the laws and courts continued to favor the local lords. This led to growing resentment among peasants that eventually exploded in the French Revolution. The area that became France was much less unified, as the King only had the ability to govern the area around Paris until later expansion; there was little unity of national spirit – or even language.
Jews in many Italian cities were confined to separate areas beginning in the eleventh century. Many magistrates insisted on this segregation due to Jewish customs and religious laws that also required living separately from Gentiles. In Venice, the Jewish area was called Il Ghetto. In Poland-Lithuania, cities such as Warsaw excluded Jews from the central town. They were forced to live on settlements on the outskirts, called shtetlin, or townlets. Jews were not allowed to reside in Russia in the late eighteenth century unless they converted to Christianity, but when that country took over parts of Poland in 1791 under Catherine “the Great,” Jews were forced to live in what was called the “Pale of Settlement” – mainly Poland, Lithuania, White Russia, and Ukraine.138
The fourteenth century was marked by a series of disasters, including the Great Famine (1314-22), due to poor harvests resulting from cold and wet conditions, contributing to a rise in crime and theft, and the Black Death (1348-49), one of many plagues that killed millions in Europe. The plagues challenged the religious beliefs of those who wondered how the wrath of God could strike good people and sinners alike. Many thought that Judgment Day was imminent. They prepared for it by self-flagellation (in case they were the guilty ones) and the killing of Jews, who were less affected by plague, possibly due to stricter hygiene practices.139 Many Jews fled to Poland, which became their main sanctuary in Europe.140
In that time of plagues, art and books called Danses Macabre reflected the realization that death could strike at any time, with poems and artwork describing how people of any walk of life could be snatched from life. Some of this even was placed on the tombs and walls of cemeteries.141
Let’s go forward, gentle Merchant
And don’t bother to weigh
The merchandise they are asking for.
It’s madness to think about that anymore.
You must think about your soul.
Time goes by, hour after hour,
And all we can do is to use it well.
Merit and good conduct last. 142
Throughout the fourteenth century wars continually devastated the populations of Europe. Men and women no longer were safe even in castles due to the introduction of gunpowder and cannons from China. Horses began to be used in warfare.143 The long-term enmity between France and England had begun, and much of the territory that we now call France was periodically under the control of England. Roving bands of warriors raided villages, inflicting rape and murder, decimating the population.144
In Russia, the town that later became
