such as PET with how specifically designed programs can increase the impact that natural environments can have on health-related issues such as stress or anxiety. That is, how can we develop health-enhancing experiences and programs using the psychological theories discussed in this chapter?
Chapter 5 focuses on the topic of ‘Human Development and Nature’. Specific attention is paid to the developmental process and myriad of ways that nature and natural environments can be used to enhance human development, particularly with a view towards positive health behaviors. Human development from birth through end-of-life stages is covered, combining developmental theory with the research about human health and natural environments. In Chapter 6, ‘Adaptations and Applications’, we examine health-related concepts such as folk biology, traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), friluftsliv, ecofeminism, and the socio-ecological approach to human health. Applications included in this chapter are nature medicines, conservation and the development of a land ethic, spirituality, and citizen science. A section of Chapter 6 describes the growing interest in ecotherapy and the broader field of ecopsychology.
Chapter 7 centers on the outcomes and benefits typically linked to human health and natural environments. Within this chapter, a broad range of activities, fields of study and settings are covered. Of major concern in this chapter is the research conducted in the area of human health and the natural environment and the specific outcome measures and documented benefits of spending time in nature. A sampling of documented benefits includes physical, psycho-emotional, spiritual, and social well-being. Included are suggestions for future research.
Chapter 8 discusses sense of place and the role of education in developing issues such as resilience, connection to nature, and building an environmental conscience. This chapter attempts to merge the reality of the positive impacts of natural environments on human health with the involvement of individuals, groups, and communities. Knowing that science provides a growing body of knowledge pointing to the value of natural environments for human health is important but insufficient if the individual does not either understand these effects or know how to apply them.
Chapter 9 looks at adventure and outdoor education programming as an example of an innovative approach for integrating natural environments and health. Chapter 10 expands on the ways to develop the connection between health and natural environments by focusing on how public policy might be developed in order to facilitate ways in which individuals can better access and benefit from natural landscapes. For example, these future actions might involve policy changes such as greenspace development, providing parks and other natural environments, and moving to make natural environments personally relevant. This chapter also examines the challenges and issues facing future research such as fidelity concerns, who will actually use the research findings, and how the issues of confounding variables will be dealt with.
The book ends with Chapter 11, ‘Resources’, and provides a collection of web sites, extant literature and other sources that speak to the connection between human health and natural environments.
References
Andrews, M. and Gatersleben, B. (2010) Variations in perceptions of danger, fear and preference in a simulated natural environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology 30(4), 481.
Blonna, R. (2011) Coping with Stress in a Changing World, 5th edn. McGraw-Hill, Boston, Massachusetts.
Bruni, C.M., Chance, R., Schultz, P.W. and Nolan, J. (2012) Natural connections: bees sting, snakes bite, but they still are nature. Environment and Behavior 44(2), 197–215.
Cheng, J. and Monroe, M.C. (2012) Connection to nature: children’s affective attitude toward nature. Environment and Behavior 44(1), 31–49.
de Vries, S., Verheij, R.A., Groenewegen, P.P. and Spreeuwenberg, P. (2003) Natural environments – healthy environments? An exploratory analysis of the relationship between greenspace and health. Environment and Planning A 35(10), 1717–1732.
Ewert, A. and Galloway, G. (2012) Take a park, not a pill: promoting health and wellness through adventure programming. In: Martin, B. and Wagstaff, M. (eds) Controversial Issues in Adventure Programming. Human Kinetics, Champaign, Illinois, pp. 130–137.
Johansson, M., Hartig, T. and Staats, H. (2011) Psychological benefits of walking: moderation by company and outdoor environment. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being 3(3), 261–280.
Kline, J.T., Rosenberger, R.S. and White, E.M. (2011) A national assessment of physical activity in US National Forests. Journal of Forestry 109(6), 343–351.
Larivière, M., Couture, R., Ritchie, S.D., Côté, D., Oddson, B., et al. (2012) Behavioural assessment of wilderness therapy participants: exploring the consistency of observational data. Journal of Experiential Education 35(1), 290–302.
Louv, R. (2005) Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder. Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Lyytimaki, J. (2012) Indoor ecosystem services: bringing ecology and people together. Human Ecology Review 19(1), 70–76.
Maller, C., Townsend, M., Pryor, A., Brown, P. and St. Leger, L. (2006) Healthy nature healthy people: ‘contact with nature’ as an upstream health promotion intervention for populations. Health Promotion International 21(1), 45–54.
Mitten, D. (1994) Ethical considerations in adventure therapy: a feminist critique. In: Cole, E., Erdman, E. and Rothblum, E.D. (eds) Wilderness Therapy for Women: The Power of Adventure. The Haworth Press, Binghamton, New York, pp. 55–84.
Mitten, D. (2004) Adventure therapy as a complementary and alternative therapy. In: Bandoroff, S. and Newes, S. (eds) Coming of Age: The Evolving Field of Adventure Therapy. Association of Experiential Education, Boulder, Colorado, pp. 240–257.
Mitten, D. (2009) Under our noses: the healing power of nature. Taproot Journal 19(1), 20–26.
O’Brien, L., Burls, A., Bentsen, P., Hilmo, I., Holter, K., et al. (2011) Outdoor education, lifelong learning and skills development in woodlands and green spaces: the potential links to health and well-being. In: Nilsson, K., Sangster, M., Gallis, C., Hartig, T., de Vries, S.,. (eds) Forests, Trees and Human Health. Springer, New York, pp. 343–372.
Outdoor Foundation (2011) Outdoor Recreation Participation Report 2011. Outdoor Foundation, Boulder, Colorado.
Pergams, O.R.W. and Zaradic, P.A. (2008) Evidence for a fundamental and pervasive shift away from nature-based recreation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105(7), 2295–2300.
Russell, K.C. (2003) An assessment of outcomes in outdoor behavioral healthcare treatment. Child and Youth Care Forum 32(6), 355–381.
Smith, B.J., Tang, K.C. and Nutbeam, D. (2006) WHO health promotion glossary: new terms. Health Promotion International 21(4), 340–345.
US Department of Health and Human Services (2000) Healthy People 2010.
