style="font-size:15px;"> Chanakya. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
Chanakya prioritized practical interests above all else. He believed that if the law was incompatible with the public interest, the latter should be given precedence. Furthermore, if he deemed the law to be in conflict with the public interest, then he advocated for the latter.
The Niti-sutra (or Chanakya-sutra) consists of aphorisms on appropriate conduct. Out of the known 455 sutras, approximately 216 of them pertain to the «Chanakya-raja-nitishastra,» a guide on what not to do when ruling a kingdom.
Chanakya utilized these sutras to educate the young Chandragupta. The foundation of these aphorisms is based on the moral aspect of virtuous governance.
The Niti-shastra, which is a guidebook for ethical conduct, primarily caters to the king and his retinue’s ideal way of living. The Arthashastra emphasizes that power upholds the sleeper, dominates all living beings, shields them, and maintains law and order. In fact, the Chanakya’s doctrine delves into the core of state power and jurisprudence.
Platon Academy. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
Chapter 3. How Antiquity’s History Was Rewritten
«Fools Dance» – a Miniature Facsimile from a 13th Century Manuscript in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Freely Available.
The initial exhaustive Latin version of Aristotle’s oeuvre, was commented on by Andalusian Arab philosopher Averroes (1126—1198), was initially published in Venice in 1489; likewise, publisher and merchant Aldus Manucius issued the first Greek edition in Venice between the years 1495 and 1498.
The New Academy, founded by Manucius in Venice at the very end of the 15th century, consisted of 30 scholars who prepared the publication of each work by practically rewriting ancient manuscripts. By the close of the 15th century, Venice had accumulated a significant library of manuscripts obtained from Constantinople and penned by classical authors. On top of this, with the city housing a significant number of Greek immigrants who were recruited as translators, Venice quickly became a booming hub for publishing. After the revised ancient texts’ release, all the originals were nowhere to be found, despite their significant historical and material worth. The deliberate destruction of these manuscripts, which were exceedingly valuable and safeguarded like treasures, was not an accident but a calculated effort to manipulate world history according to a political agenda.
Accounting of ancient manuscripts exported from Constantinople. Venice. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
Whilst revising classical ancient texts, Manucius republished earlier printed works from Florence, Rome, and Milan.
He reviewed and amended the texts to make sure that there were no contradictions with the newly published editions, thereby paving the way for the beginning of the printing era. The printing press’s invention year is widely accepted to be 1445. The Johannes Gutenberg’s invention core idea was to utilize individual metal letters for typesetting, arranged in specific cells. The letters were manually painted and then pressed onto the paper by a machine, resulting in an exact reproduction of the book page. Over the course of half a century, this technology became widespread throughout Europe.
Accounting of ancient manuscripts exported from Constantinople. Venice. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
Manucius printing house. Work with ancient manuscripts. Venice. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
In the later half of the 15th century, the rewriting of ancient authors became a common occurrence. All kinds of works were not only copied, but also reproduced. «Nine» comedies by Aristophanes were published in 1498; Thucydides, Sophocles, and Herodotus in 1502; «Greek History» by Xenophon and Euripides in 1503; and Demosthenes in 1504. In 1509, Plutarch’s minor works were released.
During that time, it is conceivable that Hieromonk Macarius, who later established a printing house in Obod, near Cetinje, studied at the Academy of Manucius and continued to carry on transcribing ancient manuscripts practice.
Manucius published Plato in 1513, dedicating it to Pope Leo X de Medici (1513—1521). It is unusual to dedicate an edition of a pagan author to the head of the Christian Church, especially considering that Plato’s work contradicts the foundations of the entire Christian doctrine. However, this apparent contradiction only holds true at first glance. In reality, the Roman popes were distanced from Christianity. They supported the practice of rewriting history and introducing antiquity to Europe, albeit in their own interpretation.
Destruction of ancient manuscripts. Venice. After the ancient manuscripts were rewritten, all the originals were destroyed to hide the forgery. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
Pindar, Isychius, and Athenaeus published works in 1514. Late in his life, Manucius published the previously unpublished «Septuagint»; it was printed posthumously in 1518.
Venice. Aldo Manucius at work. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
Creating antiquity a renewed sense, in 1502 Manucius established a community called «Hellenists,» as a part of his «New Academy». The academy’s regulations were written in Greek, members were required to communicate in Greek, and their names were Hellenized, along with their official titles. The New Academy members comprised, among others, Erasmus of Rotterdam and the Englishman Thomas Linacre.
After Manucius’ passing, his heirs took up his mantle and received significant demand alongside with generous funding from influential figures. They carried on his legacy with equal enthusiasm and printed the first editions of Pausanias, Strabo, Aeschylus, Galen, Hippocrates, and Longinus, thereby playing a significant role in the development of the newly established classic literature.
Analysis of ancient manuscripts exported from Constantinople. Venice. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
Among other publications, Manucius’s Printing press produced Bembo’s «Azolan Conversations,» Poliziano’s complete works, Polyphilus’ «Hypnerotomachia,» Dante’s «Divine Comedy,» Petrarch’s poems, early Christian-era Latin poets’ collections, Pliny the Younger’s letters, Giovanni Pontano’s poems, Jacopo Sannazzaro’s «Arcadia,» Quintillion, Valerius Maximus, and Erasmus’ «Sententia.»
Normally, the print run across each edition was approximately 200—500 copies, although there were occasional deviations. For instance, Virgil’s edition was reprinted in 1501 with a larger print run of 1,000 copies, which was intended specifically for the European royal courts’ aristocracy.
Manucius Torresano’s father-in-law owned the second Venetian printing company founded by Nicolas Jenson,
