and Nature is not in a hurry. Mr. Spencer, however, says that "the chances against any adequate readjustments fortuitously arising must be infinity to one." But he has also shown that altered degree of use does not cause the needed concomitant variation of co-operative parts. So the chances against a beneficial change in an animal must be, at a liberal estimate, infinity to two. Mr. Spencer, if he has proved anything, has proved that it is practically impossible that the giraffe can have acquired a long neck, or the elk its huge horns, or that any species has ever acquired any important modification.
Mr. Wallace, in his Darwinism, answers Mr. Spencer by a collection of facts showing that "variation is the rule," that the range of variation in wild animals and plants is much greater than was supposed, and that "each part varies to a considerable extent independently" of other parts, so that "the materials constantly ready for natural selection to act upon are abundant in quantity and very varied in kind." While co-operative parts would often be more or less correlated, so that they would tend to vary together, coincident variation is not necessary. The lengthened wing might be gained in one generation, and the strengthened muscle at a subsequent period; the bird in the meanwhile drawing upon its surplus energy, aided (as I would suggest) by the strengthening effect of increased use in the individual. Seeing that artificial selection of complicated variations has modified animals in many points either simultaneously or by slow steps, as with otter-sheep, fancy pigeons, &c. (many of the characters thus obtained being clearly independent of use and disuse), natural selection must be credited with similar powers, and Mr. Wallace concludes that Mr. Spencer's insuperable difficulty is "wholly imaginary."
The extract concerning a somewhat similar "class of difficulties," which Mr. Spencer quotes from his Principles of Biology, is faulty in its reasoning,9 though legitimate in its conclusion concerning the increasing difficulty of evolution in proportion with the increasing number and complexity of faculties to be evolved. But this increasing difficulty of complex evolution is only overcome by some favourably-varying individuals and species – not by all. And as the difficulty increases we find neglect and decay of the less-needed faculties – as with domesticated animals and civilized men, who lose in one direction while they gain in another. The increasing difficulty of complex evolution by natural selection is no proof whatever of use-inheritance10 except to those who confound difficulty with impossibility.
ALLEGED RUINOUS EFFECTS OF NATURAL SELECTION
Mr. Spencer further contends that natural selection, by unduly developing specially advantageous modifications without the necessary but complex secondary modifications, would render the constitution of a variety "unworkable" (p. 23). But this seems hardly feasible, seeing that natural selection must continually favour the most workable constitutions, and will only preserve organisms in proportion as they combine general workableness with the special modification. On the other hand, according to Mr. Spencer himself, use-inheritance must often disturb the balance of the constitution. Thus it tends to make the jaws and teeth unworkable through the overcrowding and decay of the teeth – there being, as his illustrations show, no simultaneous or concomitant or proportional variation in relation to altered degree of use or disuse.
ADVERSE CASE OF NEUTER INSECTS
Mr. Spencer also holds that most mental phenomena, especially where complex or social or moral, can only be explained as arising from use-inheritance, which becomes more and more important as a factor of evolution as we advance from the vegetable world and the lower grades of animal life to the more complex activities, tastes, and habits of the higher organizations (preface, and p. 74). But there happens to be a tolerably clear proof that such changes as the evolution of complicated structures and habits and social instincts can take place independently of use-inheritance. The wonderful instincts of the working bees have apparently been evolved (at least in all their later social complications and developments) without the aid of use-inheritance – nay, in spite of its utmost opposition. Working bees, being infertile "neuters," cannot as a rule transmit their own modifications and habits. They are descended from countless generations of queen bees and drones, whose habits have been widely different from those of the workers, and whose structures are dissimilar in various respects. In many species of ants there are two, and in the leaf-cutting ants of Brazil there are three, kinds of neuters which differ from each other and from their male and female ancestors "to an almost incredible degree."11 The soldier caste is distinguished from the workers by enormously large heads, very powerful mandibles, and "extraordinarily different" instincts. In the driver ant of West Africa one kind of neuter is three times the size of the other, and has jaws nearly five times as long. In another case "the workers of one caste alone carry a wonderful sort of shield on their heads." One of the three neuter classes in the leaf-cutting ants has a single eye in the midst of its forehead. In certain Mexican and Australian ants some of the neuters have huge spherical abdomens, which serve as living reservoirs of honey for the use of the community. In the equally wonderful case of the termites, or so-called "white ants" (which belong, however, to an entirely different order of insect from the ants and bees) the neuters are blind and wingless, and are divided into soldiers and workers, each class possessing the requisite instincts and structures adapting it for its tasks. Seeing that natural selection can form and maintain the various structures and the exceedingly complicated instincts of ants and bees and wasps and termites in direct defiance of the alleged tendency to use-inheritance, surely we may believe that natural selection, unopposed by use-inheritance, is equally competent for the work of complex or social or mental evolution in the many cases where the strong presumptive evidence cannot be rendered almost indisputable by the exceptional exclusion of the modified animal from the work of reproduction.
Ants and bees seem to be capable of altering their habits and methods of action much as men do. Bees taken to Australia cease to store honey after a few years' experience of the mild winters. Whole communities of bees sometimes take to theft, and live by plundering hives, first killing the queen to create dismay among the workers. Slave ants attend devotedly to their captors, and fight against their own species. Forel reared an artificial ant-colony made up of five different and more or less hostile species. Why cannot a much more intelligent animal modify his habits far more rapidly and comprehensively without the aid of a factor which is clearly unnecessary in the case of the more intelligent of the social insects?
ÆSTHETIC FACULTIES
The modern development of music and harmony (p. 19) is undeniable, but why could it only have been brought about by the help of the inheritance of the effects of use? Why are we to suppose that "minor traits" such as the "æsthetic perceptions" cannot have been evolved by natural selection (p. 20) or by sexual selection? Darwin holds that our musical faculties were developed by sexual preference long before the acquisition of speech. He believes that the "rhythms and cadences of oratory are derived from previously developed musical powers" – a conclusion "exactly opposite" to that arrived at by Mr. Spencer.12 The emotional susceptibility to music, and the delicate perceptions needed for the higher branches of art, were apparently the work of natural and sexual selection in the long past. Civilization, with its leisure and wealth and accumulated knowledge, perfects human faculties by artificial cultivation, develops and combines means of enjoyment, and discovers unsuspected sources of interest and pleasure. The sense of harmony, modern as it seems to be, must have been a latent and indirect consequence of the development of the sense of hearing and of melody. Use, at least, could never have called it into existence. Nature favours and develops enjoyments to a certain extent, for they subserve self-preservation and sexual and social preference in innumerable ways. But modern æsthetic advance seems to be almost entirely due to the culture of latent abilities, the formation of complex associations, the selection and encouragement of talent, and the wide diffusion and imitation of the accumulated products of the well-cultivated genius of favourably varying individuals. The fact that uneducated persons do not enjoy the higher tastes, and the rapidity with which such tastes are acquired or professed, ought to be sufficient proof that modern culture
Mr. Spencer weakly argues that an advantageous attribute (such as swiftness, keen sight, courage, sagacity, strength, &c.) cannot be increased by natural selection unless it is "of greater importance, for the time being, than most of the other attributes"; and that natural selection cannot develop any one superiority when animals are equally preserved by "other superiorities." But as natural selection will simultaneously eliminate tendencies to slowness, blindness, deafness, stupidity, &c., it
I venture to coin this concise term to signify
