tax year starting on July 1, 2017, and ending on December 31, 2017.
Example
An S corporation reporting on a calendar year has its election involuntarily terminated on July 31, 2017, when another corporation becomes a shareholder. The corporation has 2 short tax years: the S tax year running from January 1, 2017, through July 31, 2017, and the C tax year running from August 1, 2017, through December 31, 2017.
The IRS says that an unincorporated entity converting to a corporation under a state law formless conversion statute or check-the-box rules and which is eligible for S corporation status as of the first day of its first year does not have any short tax year for the momentary period it was a C corporation.
If your business has been using a particular tax year and you want to change to a different one, you must obtain IRS approval to do so. Depending on the reason for the change, approval may be automatic or discretionary. You can request a change in your tax year by filing Form 1128, Application to Adopt, Change, or Retain a Tax Year. There is a user fee (an amount set by the IRS) for this request.
Accounting Methods
An accounting method is a set of rules used to determine when and how to record income and expenses on your books and for tax-reporting purposes. In some cases, how items are treated may differ for tax reporting purposes and financial accounting purposes. What is included in this chapter are the accounting method rules for tax reporting purposes.
There are 2 principal methods of accounting: cash basis and accrual basis. Use of a particular method determines when a deduction can be claimed. However, restrictions apply for both methods of accounting. Also, the form of business organization may preclude the use of the cash method of accounting even though it may be the method of choice.
Cash method is the simpler accounting method. Income is reported when it is actually or constructively received, and a deduction can be claimed when and to the extent the expense is paid.
Example
You are a consultant. You perform services and send a bill. You report the income when you receive payment. Similarly, you buy business cards and stationery. You can deduct this expense when you pay for the supplies.
Actual receipt is the time when income is in your hands. Constructive receipt occurs when you have control over the income and can reduce it to an actual receipt.
Example
You earn a fee for services rendered but ask your customer not to pay you immediately. Since the customer was ready and able to pay immediately, you are in constructive receipt of the fee at that time.
Payments received by check are income when the check is received even though you may deposit it some time later. However, if the check bounces, then no income results at the time the check was received. You report income only when the check is later honored.
Sole proprietors and independent contractors on the cash method (and reporting on a calendar year basis) can run into a problem with respect to Form 1099-MISC for year-end payments. A company may send a payment late in December 2017 and include it on Form 1099-MISC for 2017; the contractor may receive the payment in January 2018. While this income is not taxable to the contractor until 2018, he or she must report the income on the return as it is reported by the company (because of IRS computer matching of information returns with income reported by recipients on their returns) and then make a subtraction to eliminate this amount from income. The payment is included in income in 2018 even though it is not reflected on a Form 1099-MISC for 2018.
Expenses are usually fully deductible when paid. Payments by a general credit card, such as MasterCard or Visa, are deductible in the year they are charged, even if you pay the credit card bill in the following year. Payments using ``pay by phone'' with your bank are deductible when the bank sends the payment (check your bank account statement). There has been no IRS guidance on deductibility when using PayPal, Amazon Payments, or other electronic payment methods, but it appears that payments are deductible when you instruct PayPal or other provider to make them because that is when the funds are taken from your account. Bitcoin and other digital currencies are not treated by the IRS as currency (they're treated as property), so this complicates the deduction process.
You may not be able to deduct all expenses when they are paid because there are some limitations that come into play. Generally, you cannot deduct advance payments (so-called prepaid expenses) that relate to periods beyond the current tax year.
Example
You take out a 3-year subscription to a business journal and pay the 3-year subscription price this year. You can deduct only of the payment – the amount that relates to the current year. You can deduct another next year, and the final ⅓ the following year.
Prepayments may occur for a number of expenses. You may prepay rent, insurance premiums, or subscriptions. Generally, prepayments that do not extend beyond 12 months are currently deductible.
In the case of interest, no deduction is allowed for prepayments by businesses. For example, if you are required to pay points to obtain a mortgage on your office building, these points are considered to be prepaid interest. You must deduct the points ratably over the term of the loan.
Example
If the mortgage on the office building runs for 30 years (or 360 months) and you pay the points on July 1, you can deduct 6/360 of the points in the first year. In each succeeding year you would deduct 12/360 of the points. In the final year, you would again deduct 6/360.
Deposits may be called advances. If they are refundable, then they cannot be deducted when paid. If they are nonrefundable, they can be deducted when made.
If you pay off the mortgage before the end of the term (you sell the property or refinance the loan), you can then write off any points you still have not deducted.
RESTRICTIONS ON THE USE OF THE CASH METHOD
You cannot use the cash method of accounting if you maintain inventory unless you qualify for a small business exception. If you are barred from using the cash method, you must use the accrual method or another method of accounting.
Corporate Exceptions
While farming corporations and farming partnerships in which a corporation is a partner usually must use the accrual method, the business is exempt from this rule if it is an S corporation, a family farming corporation with annual gross receipts not exceeding $25 million, and any corporation (other than a family farming corporation) with gross receipts not exceeding $1 million. A farming business includes any business that operates a nursery or sod farm or that raises or harvests trees bearing fruit, nuts, or other crops and ornamental trees.
Gross receipts All the income taken in by the business without offsets for expenses. For example, if a consultant receives fees of $25,000 for the year and has expenses of $10,000, gross receipts are $25,000.
PSC Exception
A qualified personal service corporation (PSC) can use the cash method of accounting.
Qualified personal service corporation A corporation (other than an S corporation) with a substantial number of activities involving the performance of personal services in the fields of medicine, law, accounting, architecture, actuarial sciences, performing arts, or consulting by someone who owns stock in the corporation (or who is retired
