primitive emotions. Under the influence of incense, the rational mode of consciousness is diminished and the mind tends to become more alert and open to suggestion, and so it encourages a state where ‘all minds think alike’. In 1977, Hines, a psychologist who has studied the effects of odours on the right cerebral hemisphere of the brain, firmly stated that:
… odours are capable of inducing an ecstatic, emotional state of consciousness that would render individuals more susceptible to the sort of consciousness persuasion on which ritual and religious rites depend.16
Over the last decade a spate of research papers has been published on the psychological effects of odour and its potential uses. In addition, with the resurgence of interest in natural remedies and the growing concern for environmental issues which require a harmonious relationship with nature, the benefits of incense and aromatic materials are being reassessed. The burning or vaporization of natural gums, resins and essentials oils is already beginning to undergo a revival both at home and in society at large. Unlike synthetic air-fresheners, essential oils can be employed not only as antibacterial agents or to produce a pleasant smell, but also to reduce stress, aid relaxation, induce sleep, uplift and clear the mind or act as aphrodisiacs or euphorics. In their more traditional role, they can also help create a personal bridge to the sacred – through meditation, prayer, yoga, visualization or active imagination. As early as 1580, Montaigne, the prolific French writer, observed in his Essay on Smells:
Physicians might … make greater use of scents than they do, for I have often noticed that they cause changes in me, and act on my spirits … which makes me agree with the theory that the introduction of incense and perfume into the churches … was for the purpose of raising our spirits, and of exciting and purifying our senses, the better to fit us for contemplation.17
The full potential of incense and aromatics in modern day rituals has yet to be fully explored!
Incense Table
The following botanical species are the most commonly used sources of incense:
Bark
borneol or Chinese camphor (Dryobalanops aromatica)
camphor (Cinnamomum camphora)
cassia (C. cassia)
cinnamon (C. zeylanicum)
Pollen
saffron (Crocus sativa)
Resins
balsam of Peru (Myroxylon pereirae)
balsam of tolu (M. toluiferum)
dragon’s blood (Calamus draco)
elemi (Caanarium luzonicum)
frankincense (Boswellia sacra, B. carterii, etc)
galbanum (Ferula galbanifula)
ladanum (Cistus ladaniferus)
myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)
rose malloes (Liquidamber altungia)
styrax (Styrax officinalis, Liquidamber orientalis)
tragacanth (Astragalus gummifer)
Roots/Rhizomes
calamus (Acorus calamus)
costus (Auklandia costus)
spikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi)
Seed Coat
mace (Myristica fragrans)
Woods
aloes or eagle wood (Aquillaria agallochum)
cedar (Juniperus virginiana)
cypress (Cupressus torulosa)
juniper (Juniperus mexicana)
sandalwood (Santalum album)
REFERENCES
1. Cited in Nielsen, K., Incense in Ancient Israel, E. J. Brill, 1986, p.9.
2. Le Guérer, A., Scent: The Mysterious Power of Smell, Chatto and Windus, 1993, p.120.
3. Nielsen, op. cit. p.10.
4. Ibid., p.28 (Assur level H-G, Tepe Gawra).
5. Ibid., p.25 (Tablet IX, Surpu Series).
6. From The Ritual Practice of the Riwo Sangcho (unpublished version).
7. Morita, K., The Book of Incense, Kodansha International, cited in Aromatherapy Quarterly, no.36, p. 18.
8. Groom, N., Frankincense and Myrrh, Longman, 1981, p.14.
9. Tisserand, R., The Art of Aromatherapy, C. W. Daniel, 1985, p.28.
10. Sigismund, R., Die Aromata, C. F. Winterische Verlagshandlung, Leipzig, 1884, p.2.
11. Exodus 30: 37–7.
12. Numbers 17: 11–14.
13. Atchely, 1909, cited in Stoddart, D. M., The Scented Ape, Cambridge University Press, 1990, p.180.
14. Jung, C. G., Collected Works, vol. IX, p.72.
15. Stoddart, op. cit., p.203.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
