of Islam.
Do all Muslims belong to the same large religious group?
Asked whether they think of the global community of Islam as composed of various factions, most Muslims are likely to respond that all Muslims belong to the same universal umma (UM-mah, global community) or brother- and sisterhood of faith, and that any talk of sub-groups or sects is beside the point. All believe in the oneness of God, the prophetship of Muhammad, divine revelation in the Quran, the existence of angels, the ultimate accountability of all persons, and the Five Pillars—in short, all the fundamental items of belief and practice described earlier. But there are in fact various sub-communities within the larger umma, each with its unique histories and contributions to the larger history of Islam. Minority communities of Muslims have often had to contend with the same problems that have beset minorities always and everywhere, regardless of the composition of the majority in which they find themselves.
RADICAL POLITICALLY ACTIVIST AND RELIGIOUSLY IDEALIST FACTIONS
What are politically radical activists and religiously idealist factions?
In this context, “radical” refers to highly mission-oriented groups whose members subscribe to a hard-core exclusivist ideology and tend to be willing to use harsh or even “extremist” tactics to achieve their goals. The term “politically activist” describes an ideology focused on establishing and enforcing a comprehensive system of governance and social control. And, as the chapter on “Essential Beliefs” below will explain further, the phrase “religiously idealist” refers to factions whose interpretation of Muslim history calls for the systematic restoration of what they believe to be Prophetic “ideal”—to recreate as nearly as possible the overall environment they claim characterized the lifetime of Muhammad during the Medinan years (622–632).
What sort of Muslims are the “Taliban”?
A group originally of Pakistani and Afghan nationalities, mostly of Pashtun ethnicity, emerged during the 1980s during Afghanistan’s struggle to fend off the Soviet Union’s military invasion. Among the mujahideen (freedom fighters) engaged prominently in the struggle were a faction who called themselves taliban (a Persian plural meaning “seekers, students”). Most members of the faction consider a reclusive figure named Mullah Umar their foundational figure, but his role in the group’s ongoing activities remains little understood. Taliban social policies are notoriously oppressive toward women especially, as manifest in their refusal to allow girls to be formally educated and public corporal punishment for women who violate their antiquated dress code. They seek to impose their own harsh interpretation of Sharia penal sanctions, including such barbaric practices as stoning for adultery and amputation of hands for theft.
What is the Muslim Brotherhood?
Hasan al-Banna (1906–1949), generally acknowledged as the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood (1927), was a well-educated man from a religiously conservative Egyptian family who believed that Muslims should be more active in promoting the broader societal implications of the Islamic faith. His theoretical works on “politicizing” Islam have been widely influential in the growth of a wide variety of contemporary activist Muslim organizations especially in the Middle East and North Africa. Politically activist organizations related to the Brotherhood include, for example, Hamas. Though the Brotherhood began and developed largely in Egypt, it has gained a political footing in other Middle East nations by running for office and having members elected to national assemblies. In countries such as Jordan, independent branches of the Brotherhood have arisen. More recently, the Brotherhood has exerted considerable influence in the aftermath of early 2011 “revolutionary” events that resulted in the ouster of long-time dictator Husni Mubarak. Al-Banna himself did not advocate violent means, and his contemporary disciples generally strive to bring about their goal of integrating society under religious values—acknowledging religious pluralism and rights of non-Muslims— through political activism and reform. Some other organizations indirectly influenced by Brotherhood values have, however, embraced the use of violence as necessary for overthrowing non-Islamic rule. This includes such groups as al-Qaeda and its spinoffs, the Taliban, and a host of Islamic “jihadist” organizations based in various states from North Africa through the Middle East and into Central and South Asia.
Protestors against the Muslim Brotherhood march in Cairo, Egypt, in 2013. The Brotherhood originated in Egypt.
Who are the Salafi Muslims and how influential are they?
Muslim religious scholars began using the term salaf over a millennium ago to refer to pious ancestors in faith. The term comes from an Arabic root meaning “to precede” and was for many years a general designation for early Muslims whose religious commitment made them exemplars for subsequent generations. About a century ago, prominent reformers Muhammad Abduh and Jalal ad-Din al-Afghani used the name Salafiya for their movement aimed at renewal of traditional values. More recently, the term has returned to more common usage in reference to a religio-cultural style or loosely organized school of thought that represents a decidedly “idealistic” interpretation of history. For contemporary Salafis, the concept of “reform” really means a return to, or recovery and renewal of, the values and practices they associate with the age of the Prophet and the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs (i.e., up to 661).
What is the current impact of the Salafis?
Salafi groups are reasserting their influence in many different political and cultural contexts, from the central Arab Middle East especially, but also well beyond. In places such as Egypt they have reinforced their influence by alliances with such politically organized and connected groups as the Muslim Brotherhood. Unfortunately, some Salafi groups have become increasingly prone to violent means in enforcing their more radical social and ethical norms. They are as hostile toward other self-described Muslims whom they declare destined for eternal damnation because they are guilty of all manner of “innovation” and heresy (that is, not truly Muslims at all), as they are to non-Muslims.
Who are the Wahhabi?
During the mid-late eighteenth century, a preacher and religious scholar named Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792, wah-HAAB) mounted an attack on what he regarded as un-Islamic elements among Muslims of the Arabian Peninsula. He targeted Sufi groups in particular and called for the destruction of shrines dedicated to holy personages and often associated with Sufi organizations. He influenced Ibn Saud, “founder” of the Saudi dynasty, who in turn adopted the nascent Wahhabi ideology.
Among the more interesting features of the Wahhabi approach to religion and theology is its insistence on the principle of the scholar’s responsibility for “independent investigation” (ijtihad, ij-ti-HAAD) and commensurate rejection of “unquestioning acceptance of tradition” (taqlid, tahk-LEED)—that is, simply swallowing whole what one has been told. Another is that Wahhabism claims as its theological forebear the redoubtable Ibn Taymiya—a brilliant, creative medieval thinker whose legacy has unfortunately been tarnished by uncritical (and unfair) association with more extreme forms of Wahhabi and Salafi elements.
Saudi public policy remains broadly influenced by the Wahhabi ideology, including an accelerated campaign to destroy historical sites (such as cemeteries and structures believed to date to Muhammad’s time) judged to foster inappropriate devotion and distract from “pure monotheism.” Wahhabi influence also characterizes the kingdom’s practice of funding projects elsewhere that adhere to Wahhabi standards of piety—such as replacing ornately decorated classic mosque architecture in regions such as war-ravaged Bosnia with much simpler, less colorful structures.
What kinds of organizations call themselves Ansar?
