stories in the “Garland of the Buddha’s Past Lives” have parallels in the Jatakatthavannana.16 That said, Arya·shura was not afraid of innovation. In “The Birth-Story of the Hare” (6), for example, the Bodhi·sattva dies by sacrificing himself into a fire for a brahmin, a conspicuous departure from earlier versions, as preserved in the Jatakatthavannana (no. 316) and Cariyapitaka (1.10), in which the hare survives the fire unscathed (Ohnuma 2007: 29). Arya·shura thus constantly seeks to strike a balance between the need for traditional authority on the one hand and the aspiration to develop the jataka genre through fresh literary expression on the other.
Central Themes in
the “Garland of the Buddha’s Past Lives”17
In his introductory verses, Arya·shura spells out some central motives behind composing the “Garland of the Buddha’s Past Lives.” While presented as an act of compassion performed “out of concern for the good of the world” (1.4 [3]), the text is primarily portrayed as an expression of devotion and reverence for the Buddha and his past deeds (vv. 1.2 [1], 1.5 [4]):
With this handful of flowers of poetry,
I devoutly honor his miraculous feats [. . .]
With bowed head, I revere this matchless being.
Although the didactic value of the stories is stressed— “These commendable acts offer clear signposts revealing the path to Buddhahood” (1.3 [2])—Arya·shura appears unsatisfied by the mere articulation of doctrine. On the contrary, he intends his stories to have an emotional and aesthetic effect, aimed at inspiring devotion in his audience:
May even the hard-hearted
become softened!
And may religious teachings
hereby increase with charm!(1.3 [2])
The devotional impact Arya·shura intends his narratives to achieve is reflected by the characters in the text when they witness the Bodhi·sattva’s miraculous deeds.18 Repeatedly we are told of how demons, gods, kings, ascetics, and householders are astonished by the Bodhi·sattva’s feats and become filled with devotion and joy:
Gods gathered with troops of nymphs,
their eyes blooming with wonder.
A delightful breeze began to blow.
Joy expanded in the hearts of every being.(2.78 [40])
The natural surroundings are also influenced by the Bodhi·sattva’s virtue, resulting in earthquakes, flowers falling from the sky, and oceans breaking over their shores (2.76 [38]).
This emphasis on devotion is tied up with the Bodhi·sattva’s role as a savior. Often described with images such as father, relative, protector, guide, teacher, or doctor,19 the Bodhi·sattva repeatedly acts out of compassion for beings in distress or provides refuge for the wicked he converts. The response of his disciple Ajita in “The Birth-Story on the Tigress” is typical (1.54): “I pay homage in every manner to this illustrious being, a refuge for all living creatures, a source of immense compassion and boundless goodness, a true Bodhi·sattva.” The Bodhi·sattva’s tactics as savior and instructor vary, depending on the situation. In some stories he seeks to instill fear, whether by admonishing a king who is addicted to liquor with an aggressive sermon as in “The Birth-Story on the Jar” (17) or by enforcing virtue through a police state as in “The Birth-Story on the Sacrifice” (10). In other stories the Bodhi·sattva’s techniques take on a more directly physical, and corporeal, form of salvation, as he sacrifices his body to be eaten by a hungry tigress (story 1) or allows demons to drink his blood (story 8).
The importance of the Bodhi·sattva’s role as savior is linked to his frequent portrayal as a virtuous king who protects society. As Meadows has noted (1986: 9), numerous _________
stories express “a preoccupation with proper political rule,” whereby niti, politics based on personal gain (artha), is to be replaced by virtue (dharma). This is, for example, expressed in “The Birth-Story of Vishvan·tara,” in which the prince gives gifts, “unswayed by the falsehood of politics” (9.22 [10]). The ideal king should experience the pains and pleasures of his people as if they were his own (8.4 [1]) and should carefully guard his moral conduct since his behavior is imitated by his subjects (13.87 [38], 17.10 [4]). Meadows suggests that this preoccupation with advising kings “reflects a courtly milieu” (ibid.) for the “Garland of the Buddha’s Past Lives.” Whether or not one accepts this argument, it is certainly the case that the notion of an ideal king who sacrifices everything for virtue is a prominent theme. In particular, this virtue is an absolute form of morality based on renunciant values of non-anger and non-desire, the direct opposite of the stereotyped behavior of the kshatriya class.
While kings are to incorporate renunciant values within their role as social paradigms, other stories express an antagonism between renunciation and society through the figure of the ascetic. This is particularly expressed in stories 18–20 which criticize the desire-based life of the householder in favor of asceticism. In “The Birth-Story of the Childless Ascetic,” for example, the Bodhi·sattva states:
The household life is a great discomfort,
for both the wealthy and the poor.
The wealthy suffer the toil of guarding money,
the poor suffer the toil of acquiring it.
As there is no happiness in such a life,
both for the wealthy and the poor,
to delight in it is a delusion.
Evil in fact is its source.(18.22 [11]–23 [12])
According to Arya·shura’s framework, ascetic renunciation is seen as an aspect of virtue (sila), the second perfection. The other seven stories treated within the perfection of virtue are structured around the five precepts, a set of restraints central to Buddhist morality. “The Birth-Story of Shakra” (11) thus portrays the precept against killing; “The Birth-Story of the Brahmin” the precept against stealing; “The Birth-Story of Unmadayanti” (13) the precept against immoral sexual conduct; “The Birth-Story of Suparaga” (14), “The Birth-Story of the Fish” (15), and “The Birth-Story of the Quail Chick” (16) the precept against lying; and “The Birth-Story on the Jar” (17) the precept against alcohol. The key feat performed by the Bodhi·sattva in stories 14–16 is an “affirmation of truth” (saty’/adhisthana), whereby a statement of truth produces a magical effect on the outside world.
If we turn to the first ten stories of the “Garland of the Buddha’s Past Lives,” the importance of renunciant values, combined with the Bodhi·sattva’s role as a savior, becomes accentuated through the perfection of giving.20 The practice of giving is fundamental to the Buddhist path. Not only is it essential for the survival of the Buddhist monastic community, it is also the basis for cultivating morality and developing a renunciant attitude of non-attachment. This renunciant significance is highlighted by “The Birth-Story of Agastya” (7), in which the Bodhi·sattva’s main practice as an ascetic renouncer is, in fact, to give gifts.
Different types of gift are given by the Bodhi·sattva, including wealth and even his own body. Due to its transient nature, wealth is depicted negatively as a source of greed and attachment, which ascetics discard “as though it were chaff” (7.8). But while wealth is considered worthless, the act of giving is sometimes described as extracting the “essence” or “worth” (sara) out of wealth:21
Wealth
