with descriptions of what is to come shortly became a common feature of apocalyptic texts. Their origin and their content, however, varies in these texts. Later on, in a section that repeats some of the details of the original vision by the river Chebar, readers learn that the Spirit took Ezekiel on a tour of the temple in Jerusalem by lifting him and setting him up in space between heaven and earth (Ez. 8:3). Taking the visionary to the heavenly realm in a tour of either heavenly or earthly realities (Ez. 8:3 -10:22) became a standard feature of apocalyptic literature.
As already said, Ezekiel is concerned to demonstrate that what both the exiles and the neighbors of Israel are saying is not true. Specifically contradicting their charges, Ezekiel insists that the God of Israel is all-powerful and that his ways are just. He supports his contention by giving detailed descriptions of God’s anger, fury, wrath and jealousy in accord with retributive justice (Ez. 5:13-17; 36:5-6). These attributes will be displayed both against the rebellious people who complain that God’s ways are not just, and against the nations who dismiss him as a weak god. As a result of his exhibitions of anger, fury, wrath and jealousy, both his people and the peoples of the surrounding nations “shall know I am the Lord” (Ez. 6:7, 14;12:20; 13:23; 14:23; 16:62; 17:21; 20:12, 16, 38, 42; 21:4; 24:24; 29:21; 32:15; 33:29; 36:23; 37:14). This claim is the leitmotiv of the book. At the moment, the Lord is being dishonored. His name, however, will be vindicated. After the God who has absolute control of history has punished not only Israel, but also Ammon (Ez. 25:2), Edom (Ez. 25:12; 35:2), Philistia (Ez. 25:15), Tyre (Ez. 26:2), Sidon (Ez. 28:22) and Egypt (Ez. 29:3) no one will be accusing the God of Israel of being weak and unjust. Both the broad descriptions of God’s anger and its international reach anticipate apocalyptic expressions of delight with the demonstrations of God’s wrath. Special punishments are to fall upon the Pharaoh of Egypt by the hand of the Babylonians who, God explains, “work for me” (Ez. 29:20). Apparently, God’s special anger toward Egypt is due to Israel’s tendency to doubt God’s ability to provide security, and to rely on Egypt for it. This flames up God’s jealousy; therefore, he will take care that this never happens again (Ez. 29:16). Also to be understood is that God will punish all the surrounding nations not only to avenge their enmity toward Israel, but for his own sake (Ez. 20:9, 14; 36:22, 32). Both in Israel and among the nations, people are saying that God is weak and unjust; he has been dishonored. When the people see the full display of God’s anger, fury and wrath, and understand his jealousy for his good name, then God would have vindicated himself before all peoples (Ez. 36:23; 39:25, 27). The vindication of God’s power and justice is the main agenda item in Ezekiel. Any hope for a future of bliss depends on God’ vindication. Centuries later, in the book of Revelation, this is described as God’s vengeance.
The most intensive display of God’s power takes place in his dealings with Gog of the land of Magog, located to the north and associated with Meshesk and Tubal (Ez. 38:2). It is difficult to identify these names with certainty. They seem to have been taken from the list of nations in Genesis 10. The army of Gog consists of soldiers coming from the four quadrants of the earth: Gomer (north), Put (Ethiopia, south), Cush (Tarshish, west) and Persia (east) (Ez. 38:5-6). This enormous army from “the uttermost parts of the north” will descend “against the land that is restored from war, the land where people who were gathered from many nations upon the mountains of Israel, which had been a continual waste,” but where now those living in it “dwell securely” (Ez. 38:8). The description of the exiles living again securely in the mountains of Israel, and the explanation that God is using Gog by putting hooks into his jaws in order to bring him out against the restored people of God, anticipate future apocalyptic scenarios. Gog seems to be an all-encompassing surrogate for the forces of evil, coming from “the north,” that will try to prevent the full vindication of the God of Israel. Subjugating him by putting hooks in his mouth (Ez. 38:4), as well as the references to God gaining control over the surrounding nations by catching them with his net (Ez. 12:13; 17:20; 19:8) reflect the mythological story of Marduk catching Kingu and Tiamat in the Enuma Elish. In Job, God draws out Leviathan from the sea with a fishhook (Job 41:1) This language indicates that Gog is being compared to Leviathan, the dragon of the sea where the forces of evil are gestated (Is. 27:1). The use of mythological language for the descriptions of evil and how God will deal with it became standard in apocalyptic texts. In this also Ezekiel is a forerunner. The mythological scene portrays the future destruction of all evil once Israel is back to its land and is no longer prey to the nations (Ez. 34:28), thus bringing about the total vindication of the God of Israel (Ez. 36:23; 39:27). It is important to note that Gog of the land of Magog is described doing what God is causing him to do. He is neither an independent agent nor the surrogate of a supernatural being who has rebelled against God. Satan is not a protagonist in Ezekiel’s symbolic universe.
Being shown the harsh ways in which God punishes rebellious Israel, Ezekiel asks God in horror, “Ah Lord God! Wilt thou make a full end of the remnant of Israel?” (Ez. 11:13). The implicit answer is “No.” Throughout the book, God repeatedly announces that he will “restore the fortunes” of Israel. He will gather them from among the peoples and give them back their land (Ez. 11:17; 16:55; 28:25; 36:24; 37:12, 25; 16:53; 39:25). In poetic language God gives a vivid description of how he will make the land flourish again, when all “the cities shall be inhabited and the waste places rebuilt.” His people “will soon come home.” God “will do more good to them than ever before” (Ez. 36:8-11).
While restoring their fortunes, God promises to “give them one heart, and put a new spirit within them … that they may walk in my statutes and keep my ordinances and obey them; and they shall be my people, and I will be their God” (Ez. 11:19-20). The placing of a new spirit and the giving of one heart, which are referred to on three other occasions (Ez. 18:31; 36:26-28; 37:12), are essential to the successful restoration of Israel in her land. The one heart is to be understood in terms of the Hebrew way of expressing doubt or indecision as having two hearts, the heart being the organ of the will. It was in this context also that in one of his beatitudes Jesus spoke of having a pure heart, that is a will not confused by contrary tendencies. This condition will facilitate Israel’s perfect obedience back home in their land.
For Ezekiel, those who live in a restored Jerusalem will not be all those who are now scattered among the nations. There will be a judgment that separates those who will enter the land from those who, although they have been taken out of Babylon, will not enter the land. “I will purge out the rebels from among you, and those who transgress against me; I will bring them out of the land where they sojourn, but they shall not enter the land of Israel” (Ez. 20:38). The notion of individual identity serves to separate individuals from within the body of God’s people. In the vision where Ezekiel is taken on a tour of Jerusalem and shown the many ways in which the people have abandoned their God and carry out abominations, Ezekiel sees one dressed in white linen being instructed to “go through the city, through Jerusalem, and put a mark upon the foreheads of the men who sigh and groan over all the abominations that are committed in it. And to the others he said in my hearing, ‘Pass through the city after him, and smite; your eye shall not spare, and you shall show no pity; slay old men outright, young men and maidens, little children and women, but touch no one upon whom is the mark. And begin at my sanctuary’” (Ez. 9:4-6). This total destruction of not only those who are sinning by robbing, lending with usury, taking bribes, disrespecting their elders, failing to keep the Sabbath, sacrificing children to Moloch, weeping for Tammuz and worshiping the sun (Ez. 8:5-16), but also those who are indifferent to what others are doing, including the priest at the sanctuary, reveals a God who is determined to assert his power and re-establish his reputation by demonstrating that retributive justice works. Ezekiel’s apologetic agenda became the agenda of all biblical apocalypses which double down and describe a God whose justice includes sadistic vengeance.
In connection with the description of the destruction of those who have not been marked on their foreheads because they were not lamenting the abominations done by their neighbors, Ezekiel is told that God gave his people “my [his] Sabbaths, as a sign between me and them, that they might know that I the Lord sanctify them” (Ez. 20; 12). As a sign, or a marker of being God’s property, the Sabbath receives singular attention, and its profanation provokes God’s extreme jealousy (Ez. 20:13, 21; 22:8, 26; 23:38). Apparently, Ezekiel
