he would be a bishop in spite of himself.”76 Despite his hesitance, Martin was an effective and popular bishop, contrary to the other bishops in Gaul who tended to be worldly and stayed in the cities. Martin believed the function of a bishop was to minister to the people, not to spend time in meetings with other bishops. He refused to go to local synods and other gatherings of the episcopacy. He initiated a plan of evangelization to bring the Gospel to the pagani in the countryside: “One could sum up Martin’s apostolate by noting that he did not take the Roman road, but, rather, the Gaulish byway.”77 The saintly man almost singlehandedly brought the Faith out of the city and into the countryside, where he worked many miracles, including the raising of three people from the dead.78 Martin’s efforts ensured the Church would not remain an urban phenomenon, but rather be the foundation of a post-imperial society.
The beloved bishop passed to his eternal reward on November 8, 397. He was buried on November 11, and his shrine became one of the most important pilgrimage places in Christendom.79 The Church recognized Martin’s sanctity immediately, a unique honor usually reserved for martyrs or popes.80 Martin was “an everyday saint” who humbly submitted to God’s plan for his life, despite his desires, so that “forced to do something he did not want to do, he accomplished much more than he could have dared to hope.”81
The Unlikely Bishop, Protector of the Church
In the same year of Martin’s death, another man who had not wanted to be a bishop died in the city of Milan. Born in Trier, Ambrose came from a prominent Roman Christian family who counted martyrs among its ancestors. His father, Aurelius Ambrosius, was the praetorian prefect of Gaul during the reign of Constantius II. When Aurelius died, the family moved to Rome. Ambrose’s sister became a religious, receiving her veil from the hands of Pope Liberius.82 Like his father, Ambrose embraced a secular career in politics. He studied grammar, rhetoric, and law, and he even learned Greek. His brilliance and talents earned him a position on the staff of the praetorian prefect of Italy. At the age of twenty-nine, Ambrose was appointed governor of the provinces of Liguria and Emelia with the regional seat at Milan. Ambrose gained a reputation as an efficient, fair, and conscientious governor.
Following the death of Auxentius, the Arian bishop of Milan, in 373, the clergy and people gathered in the cathedral to elect his successor. The orthodox contingent saw Auxentius’s death as an opportunity to get rid of the Arians and elect a bishop who supported Nicaea. The Arians wanted to retain control of Milan and were opposed to any candidate in favor of the orthodox creed. Both sides were unwilling to compromise, and the deliberations turned violent. Hoping to quell the riot, Ambrose, who had been present observing the proceedings, rose to address the assembly, urging peace and unity. His speech had the desired effect, along with an unintended consequence. Tradition holds that a small child cried out, “Ambrose for bishop!” and the people agreed.83 Ambrose was stupefied at his unexpected election by popular acclamation, especially given his status as a catechumen. Ambrose left the cathedral without accepting the election; however, the clergy and people were determined to see him bishop. They sent a petition to Emperor Valentinian, requesting his assistance in the matter. The emperor sent a letter to Ambrose that told him to accept, so he did. He was baptized on Sunday, ordained a priest a few days later, and then consecrated bishop the following Sunday.84
Ambrose quickly embraced the clerical life thrust upon him. He sold his worldly possessions and gave the money to the poor. He diligently studied the Scriptures and theological works. He developed a prayer life rooted in the Scriptures, known as lectio divina, (or divine reading), which remains a popular devotion. His primary objective was to root out Arianism and unite the Milanese under the banner of Nicaean orthodoxy. Ambrose, like Irenaeus, defined membership in the Church as communion with Rome, writing, “Where Peter is, there is the Church.”85 Ambrose also wanted to combine the public duties of a bishop with the life of a monk. He lived simply, focused on his personal prayer life, and devoted hours to performing corporal works of mercy. He taught his people primarily through preaching, which influenced a young teacher named Augustine. His relationship with this young teacher would be one of the most important friendships in Church history.
Ambrose understood the secular political world due to his previous profession. As bishop, he engaged in not only ensuring the independence of the Church from secular control, but also in reminding the emperor that he was not above critique from the episcopacy. He established the principle that even the most powerful political ruler is subject to the bishops of the Church in matters of faith. Ambrose rejected the eastern notion of caesaro-papism when he wrote: “In cases where matters of faith are in question, it is the custom for bishops to judge emperors when the emperors are Christian, and not for emperors to judge bishops. The Emperor is within the Church and not above the Church.”86 He instituted this policy in two high-profile cases of conflict with the emperor.
The Roman Senate house contained a statue of the pagan goddess Victoria, where senators used to offer incense at her altar upon entering the building. Constantius II removed the statue at the urging of Christian senators in 357, but it was later restored. Emperor Gratian ordered its removal once more; however, during the reign of Valentinian, a group of pagan senators wanted to hold a procession to the statue. News reached Ambrose that the emperor was considering granting the request. The bishop wrote a letter, exhorting him to forbid the procession — and if the emperor refused, then he could “come to church if you wish, but you will not find a bishop there, or if so, it will be one who resists you.”87
In 390, the local military commander, Butheric, arrested a popular charioteer in Thessalonica on charges of sexual impropriety, resulting in a riot that led to Butheric’s death and the mutilation of his corpse, which was dragged through the streets. Emperor Theodosius, incensed at the treatment of his official, ordered the army to massacre every Thessalonian who attended the next series of games. Several thousand people, including women and children, were put to the sword. Ambrose was horrified when he heard the news and sent a scathing personal letter to Theodosius, calling him to repentance for this sinful act:88
A deed has been perpetrated at Thessalonica, which has no parallel in history. Put away this sin from your kingdom. You may do that by humbling your soul before God. You are a man, and temptation has come to you; now get the better of it. Tears and penitence alone can take away sin. I dare not offer the Sacrifice [of the Mass] if you attend. For can it possibly be right, after the slaughter of so many, to do that which may not be done after the blood of only one innocent person has been shed?89
Theodosius was moved by Ambrose’s letter. He made a public profession of penance by coming to Milan on Christmas Day 390, where he prostrated himself before the bishop, wearing simple clothing. Ambrose joyfully absolved the emperor and readmitted him to communion. The image of the most powerful man in the world humbly submitting himself in penance before the Church must have moved the entire Church, as news spread of the action — such an act would have been unthinkable even twenty years before! Ambrose’s strong defense of the Church, as well as his leadership in restricting caesaro-papism in the west, is his most enduring legacy. The saintly bishop of Milan died in 397. His friend, Saint Augustine, whom he helped bring into the Church, wrote of Ambrose that “he was one of those [men], who speak the truth, and speak it well, judiciously, pointedly, and with beauty and power of expression.”90
The Golden-Mouthed
John (347–407) loved his home city of Antioch, but God’s plan for his life would lead him far from home and involve much suffering. He studied the law with a mind to pursue public service, but felt the call to the life of a hermit and monk. His brilliance and holy living attracted the attention of his bishop, who ordained him a deacon in 381 and then a priest five years later. He would have been content to remain in his beloved Antioch, ministering to the people. But when Nectarius, the archbishop of Constantinople, died in 397, John was chosen to succeed him. Initially, John refused the appointment, prompting the
