which include wearing women’s clothes and makeup and employing a womanly voice (phōnēn gynaikōdē), as well as spinning wool and spending time with women (2.23.1).17 Sardanapallus not only weaves as a Greek woman would be expected to but chooses to work the most feminine cloth possible, dyed with expensive purple and made of the “softest” (malakōtata) wool (2.23.1). Diodorus comments that Sardanapallus is so devoted to cosmetics that he tricks out his face “more delicately than any luxurious woman” (2.23.1: hapalōteron pasēs gynaikos trupheras). Diodorus is especially offended by Sardanapallus’s sexual appetite, which he indulges with both men and women “without restraint” (2.23.2: anedēn). His way of life is notable for its “luxury and idleness” (2.23.1: tryphē kai rathumia), which Diodorus associates with inaccessibility; he says that the king was never “seen by anyone outside” the palace (2.23.1: tou mēd’ hyph’ henos tōn exōthen horasthai).
On the surface, Sardanapallus looks like a stereotypically “effeminate” Eastern ruler, although feminine luxury, as Robert Gorman and Vanessa Gorman have noted, is not the direct cause of his downfall. Medes and Persians who witness his behavior are encouraged to pursue their conspiracy against him, but their motivations and ultimate success are unrelated to Sardanapallus’s private pursuits.18 Nevertheless, Diodorus links two other qualities to his ultimate defeat—idleness and inaccessibility—and in the context of Sardanapallus’s broader story we should understand these as feminine failings. Since elite Greek women were usually confined to the home and prohibited from performing most kinds of work, idleness and seclusion, like luxury, were qualities often associated with women. Sardanapallus, who is marked so strongly as feminine, performs luxury, idleness, and inaccessibility in a feminine way.19
Sardanapallus’s war with the rebels is long and complicated, but an important turning point occurs when he decides to retreat to the palace and “remain hopeful, thinking he would endure the siege and await the troops sent by his subjects.”20 We are not told whether these troops materialize, but Sardanapallus seems foolish to expect that they will, given how he has cut himself off from his people. The rebels, on the other hand, are able to challenge and ultimately defeat the great Assyrian empire by forging alliances. Arbaces and Belesys, the ringleaders, “united with the leaders of the other nations and zealously invited them all to banquets and common gatherings, building friendship with each of them.”21 Sardanapallus, whether devoted to his desires or holed up against a siege waiting for help from subordinates, is the polar opposite of Arbaces and Belesys, who rely on face-to-face contact between equals to form personal relationships. In Diodorus’s account of Sardanapallus, femininity is linked to defeat, but not through luxury. Rather, Diodorus demonstrates that feminine pursuits are disastrous for rulers because they generate or reinforce the desire for idleness and seclusion, both of which are inimical to strong relationships with potential allies and one’s people.
Diodorus devotes another section of book 2 to masculine women, Amazons, Scythians, and human Gorgons.22 Through these communities of women, Diodorus explores the limits of sex/gender variance, admiring masculine women as long as they do not feminize men. Before Diodorus, Herodotus had presented communities of warrior women in neutral terms. His story of the Amazons, who ultimately incorporate Scythian men into their community, inverts some typical features of Greek sex/gender norms (4.114; cf. 2.35), but Herodotus does not express admiration (as Diodorus does) for their strength or way of life.23
The first warrior women Diodorus describes are the Scythians, whose rulers are “notable for their might” (alkēn diapherousai). This quality is not inborn, Diodorus notes, but cultivated through egalitarian training in war, as a result of which they “do not at all fall short of the men in their acts of courage” (tais andreiais ouden leipontai tōn andrōn) and are themselves doers of “great deeds” (2.44.1: megalai praxeis).24 While Walter Penrose has convincingly argued that andreia, “courage,” is attributed to both men and women in the Hellenistic period, Diodorus retains this word’s masculine overtones by pairing it with a cognate in the phrase tōn andrōn.25
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