was an inevitable result, both literarily and philosophically; so if we look at the thought of the Wei, Chin, and the Northern and Southern dynasties from the standpoint of pure philosophy, with the exception of Buddhist studies we find that the so-called study of the Three Arcana was only literary and philosophical. This study of mystical arcana turned into the fashion of Pure Conversation, and Pure Conversation produced the idea of the "use of uselessness," relegating all affairs of state to the status of mere scenery of the passing seasons. This was an inevitable result of the trend of events.
As for Buddhist learning and thought at this same time, during the Eastern and Western Chin dynasties and the Northern and Southern dynasties, Central Asian people rose up and entered the central plain of China, competing among themselves for hegemony. This allowed the great flow of Buddhism eastward to continue unbroken, thus establishing a foundation for Chinese Buddhism and the development of Chinese Buddhist doctrine in the Sui (588-618) and T'ang dynasties that occurred afterward.
Some consider the importation of Buddhist doctrine into China during the Northern and Southern dynasties to have been based on the armed invasions of Central Asian peoples, in the same way that Western religions proselytized in China at the end of the Manchurian-ruled Ch'ing dynasty. However, this issue is very clear in Chinese historical materials: the two situations cannot be equated. In reality, when Central Asian peoples invaded China during the Northern and Southern dynasties, their cultural base was too shallow and slight, and they basically had no culture or philosophy to speak of. They had no concern with religion and politics; they were just a bunch of ignorant, barbaric plunderers.
Later, however, the deeds of the likes of Shih Yen and Yao Ch'in were somewhat restrained in their wantonness and destructiveness entirely because they were affected by the influence of Buddhist teaching. Another example is the situation under the Northern Wei dynasty, which absorbed Confucian and Taoist culture as a result of Buddhist influence. This is clearly documented in history, so there should be no argument about it.
In sum, the Buddhism of the Northern and Southern dynasties, by merging with Confucian and Taoist culture, set the stage for the culture of the Sui, T'ang, and subsequent dynasties as well as the upsurge of Buddhist learning in China. Distinguished monks coming to China from Central Asia, people such as Fo-t'u-teng and Kumarajiva, were all men of outstanding brilliance who devoted their energies to Buddhist cultural work throughout their lives. Their contributions to Chinese culture and thought have all been of lasting merit, which no one can deny.
Another person of note was Shen Yueh, who is famous for discovering the science of phonetics and rhyme in China, which came about through his involvement in Buddhist scriptural translation projects. Then there was Liu Hsieh, who developed the science of grammar through Buddhist translation and wrote the famous treatise "Sculpting Dragons in the Heart of Writing." Also, the stone caves at Yun-kang and the T'ang dynasty murals at Tun-huang, as well as music, poetry and song, fine arts, and other developments, all had some connection with Buddhism.
However, it must be remembered that from the time of the Eastern Han dynasty to the Sui and T'ang eras, Indian Buddhist thought was absorbed to produce the characteristics of Chinese Buddhist culture and went through many trials and tribulations, an intricate and complex process taking about four or five hundred years before it finally developed into the culture of the T'ang dynasty. So being familiar with the old and knowing the new, when we modern people want to talk about the interpénétration and fusing of Chinese and Western cultures, even though the times have changed and conditions are different (and also taking into consideration the development of modern science and technology) we must realize that in no way can this fusion happen within a short period of time; it may take a century for it to be consummated. Therefore, young Chinese intellectuals should be alert and even more diligent in facing up to trends in their culture in the near future, as well as to the responsibility they personally bear for the country, its people, its history, and its culture.
As to the development of the presentations of Confucian, Buddhist, and Taoist learning from the Sui and T'ang dynasties onward, this naturally had its own historical background. The remote causes behind this development are as I have already set forth above, but the proximate causes show an additional facet.
First, because of the connection with the Li clan, which was the ruling house of the T'ang dynasty, from the time of the T'ang Emperor T'ai-tsung (r. 627-649) Taoism became officially established as the national orthodoxy, honoring Li Lao-chun as the founder of the religion. Thus Taoism was established on the foundation of the polity and education of the T'ang dynasty.
Second, the rulers and ministers of the T'ang dynasty were deeply interested in Buddhism, even though they honored Taoism. Thus, in reality Buddhism and Taoism were both respected, and distinctions were made only in terms of the ranking of their personnel, that is all.
Third, from the beginning, many of the generals and ministers involved in founding the T'ang dynasty were students of the school of the literatus Wang T'ung, whose teaching took after the best in the doctrines and philosophies of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism without drawing boundaries between them. Because of this, the general run of literati, the Confucian intellectuals, mostly held philosophies in which Confucianism and Buddhism were not divided, and Confucianism and Taoism were not distinguished.
So it was that after the mid-T'ang dynasty period, although the master calligrapher and famous essayist Han Yu (who was considered an orthodox Confucian) stirred up a notorious anti-Buddhist affair, in reality the pros and cons of this case were exaggerated by people of later times. Upon careful reading of Han Yu's anti-Buddhist writings as well as investigating the historical facts, we find that at that time he was just dissatisfied with the Buddhist institution and a certain type of Buddhist; he did not attack Buddhism itself very much.
Furthermore, after Han Yu, the most powerful reason why the Confucians of the schools of Inner Design during the Sung, Yuan, Ming, and Ch'ing dynasties repudiated Buddhism was their claim that Buddhism rejected social norms due to its monastic system, in which neither familial nor political authority are recognized. Other than this, there were a few criticisms concerning Buddhism, but all of them were the uninformed opinions of outsiders and are not worthy of serious consideration.
From a more profound point of view, Han Yu's historical repudiation of Buddha caused no loss to Buddhism, so very few of the eminent monks and Zen masters of the time came forward to speak on the matter. We should note here that those who really strike criticism at the very being of a religion are often themselves originally members of that religion. That is the rule, past and present, in China and elsewhere: people of all religions should examine it deeply.
The upsurge in Buddhist studies during the T'ang dynasty influenced every aspect of Chinese culture, later reaching Japan and the countries of the East. There were three main reasons for this. First, the land was at peace and society was stable; talented Buddhists were therefore able to appear one after another to found the doctrines and principles of the various schools of Chinese Buddhism, thus influencing all of Chinese culture and education in the T'ang dynasty.
Second, the fashions of the Zen schools—the Southern school of sudden enlightenment and the Northern school of gradual enlightenment—spread everywhere, expanding vastly. Like honey in water, like salt adding flavor, the literature and cultural studies of the T'ang dynasty became everywhere filled with the living potential of Zen consciousness. At the same time, Zen Master Pai-chang established the communal monastic system in China, causing the ten schools of Buddhist studies to take shelter under one order. This established the special character of Chinese Buddhism and Chinese Buddhist studies, which set a shining example for all times and all nations.
Third, Dharma Master Hsuan-tsang returned to China from his studies in India. The influence of his work translating Buddhist scriptures for China, and the completion of the translation of Buddhist literature on the doctrines of Consciousness Only and phenomenal characteristics, enabled the
