the end of the dynasty, Cheng Yuanyun goes to Japan to teach chin-na and Chinese wrestling; from these roots jujitsu develops.
Phase III: The Age of Dispersion
Ching Dynasty (1644–1911)
The Ming dynasty comes to an abrupt and violent end when Manchurian troops storm the capital, Beijing. Fierce hatred between the Han and the Manchurian intruders means a constant threat of rebellion and constant efforts to root out Ming loyalists. During the 1800s, thousands of Chinese emigrate to the United States, seeking work and establishing communities (“Chinatowns”) where Chinese cultural traditions, including the martial arts, thrive.
In 1700 Manchurians burn the Shaolin Temple in Henan, as a potential haven for rebels; the monks disperse, and the development of the martial arts will never again be centralized. Some monks move south, teaching and developing the art privately. Some migrate to other parts of Southeast Asia.
In 1901 military exams are discarded; “folk” wushu becomes the principal practice for health, sport, and entertainment.
Especially toward the end of the dynasty, secret societies become active, practicing martial arts for rebellion; foreigners call them “Boxers.” Some societies teach their members that their kungfu will protect them from bullets, which is proven tragically false in the Boxer Rebellion of 1911.
Phase IV: Modern Age of Kungfu and Wushu
Republic (1912–1949)
Political turmoil erupts. In 1912, led by Sun Yat-sen, the Republic of China is founded; in 1921 the Chinese Communist Party forms, opposing Chiang Kaishek’s Kuomintang party. Japanese occupy China (1937–1945).
At the turn of the twentieth century, popular opinion is strongly divided as to whether China should preserve its heritage of martial arts or adopt Western competitive sports. (Well-educated Chinese disdain exercise in any form.) Ultimately, both are encouraged. Chinese martial arts are referred to by their historical name, wushu, meaning “martial” (wu) “arts” (shu). In 1928 the Central Wushu Institute is established. In 1936 a Chinese wushu team performs at the Berlin Olympics.
People’s Republic (1949–present)
In 1949 the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Tse-tung, establishes the People’s Republic of China. Hong Kong, while geographically and culturally a part of Canton Province, remains politically a part of Britain. The capitalistic economy supports independence from China in many areas, including the martial arts.
On the Mainland
1956: The Chinese Wushu Association is set up.
1958: The State Physical Culture and Sports Commission defines exercise routines and competition rules for various styles of wushu.
1966–76: During the Cultural Revolution, wushu is discouraged as a feudal practice; many martial artists escape to Hong Kong, where their arts are filmed and marketed as “kungfu movies.”
1982: The First National Wushu Conference establishes general and specific policies for the development of wushu. The emphasis is on demonstration, performance, and competition, rather than martial arts applications. Subsequently, wushu associations, clubs, centers, and societies are set up in all parts of the country.
1985: The First International Wushu Invitational Tournament is held. It has been held annually ever since.
1990: The International Wushu Federation is formally established; wushu is included as an official competition event at the Asian Games.
In Hong Kong
1972: The movie Fists of Fury, starring Bruce Lee, opens in Hong Kong, grossing millions on its first day. The Hong Kong film industry is already making millions on this new genre, termed “kungfu movies” after the local slang term for the martial arts.
1973: In the U.S. David Carradine stars in the weekly drama Kung Fu, which presents not only the dramatic aspects of Chinese martial arts, but also moral and cultural aspects, thus winning the respect of a wider audience.
1970s: Enrollment in kungfu classes mushrooms in schools in the U.S., particularly in big cities; Chinese martial arts are widely taught to non-Asians for the first time.
Today, in addition to both wushu and the many styles of kungfu, other martial arts of Asia are being taught all over the world, and new styles and forms are being created, particularly for self-defense.
THE STUDY AND PRACTICE of kungfu has always had strong spiritual, moral, and ethical components. Why? How did it become more than a collection of fighting techniques? The reasons have to do with the influences of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism in the context of Chinese culture. Although today the ethical elements of kungfu have been somewhat obscured by mass marketing and commercialism—that is, by the need of kungfu masters and schools to survive in a commercial world—nevertheless, they do survive and perhaps explain kungfu’s continuing appeal to modern generations, both Eastern and Western. Understanding the three strongest philosophical roots of kungfu will give a profound and essential dimension to your practice.
Buddhism
The Buddha was a man who found a way to reduce personal suffering through self-awareness. He emphasized that the only way to achieve true, enduring happiness was through one’s own concentrated effort, and he summarized how one should work toward this goal in his “eightfold path,” which is: right understanding, right aspirations, right action, right speech, right livelihood, right effort, right concentration, and right mindfulness. Thus, the life Buddha encouraged his followers to lead was not a passive one, but rather one in which every thought and deed was focused in one direction: toward eliminating suffering. In the course of his own search, Buddha found that stringent ascetic practices—punishing the physical body—did not bring him closer to enlightenment. Indeed, on the contrary, a healthy physical body enhanced spiritual practices, enabling longer and more focused meditation. This explains the first introduction of physical exercises in the Shaolin Temple; it perhaps also explains why, traditionally, masters of the Chinese martial arts have also been masters of the healing arts.
Buddha’s teaching of compassion translates into nonviolence and the use of power only as a last resort. Thus, from Buddhism, came the understanding that violence could not end violence and that any action done in anger can only create more anger. Real victory, the Buddhist scriptures suggest, lies in eliminating animosity and hatred. If you can transform and/or eliminate your opponent’s desire to fight, then you achieve ultimate self-defense.
Taoism
Taoism, or the philosophy of the Tao, is expressed most famously in the Tao Te Ching, or Dao De Jing, a collection of terse, enigmatic observations on nature, ostensibly written by the philosopher Lao-tzu in the sixth century B. C.
Taoism teaches that the entire universe is animated by a vital energy that can be felt and only roughly defined in words as the “Tao.” Any movement in harmony with nature, or with the Tao, flows freely, without resistance. Thus, human happiness, peace, contentment, success, and immortality all lie in coming into perfect harmony with the Tao of nature. By eliminating the fears, desires, and judgment of personal ego, you will, in some sense, be carried away by the Tao—“acting without intention”
