building, if compared to the sacred structures of other cultures, seems most like the Greek temple in its restraint and simple dignity, although it is very different in respect to the prominent part played by the roof. In fact, it may be said that the roof which protects the interior from the frequent rains of Japan is the dominant element in Japanese architecture. Not only the size of the roof, which projects beyond the walls of the building, but also the elegant curve of the eaves and the weight and beauty of the grey clay tiles, so characteristic of Buddhist in contrast to Shinto architecture, add greatly to the impressive appearance of these temples. In Greek buildings the architect aimed at a perfect equilibrium between the horizontal and the vertical, but here the emphasis is entirely upon the horizontal. The building materials themselves, of course, are entirely different and the brilliant white marble of a temple like the Parthenon creates a very different effect from the subdued colors of the Japanese temple.
Although the construction of these early Japanese temples is quite uncomplicated, it is wholly adequate for its purpose, which is best demonstrated by the fact that these structures have survived longer than any other wooden buildings in the world. The pillars, each of which is carved from a single large tree trunk, show a swelling towards the center like that in the Greek columns, a trait which may show the influence of the Graeco-Buddhist art of Gandhara Province. They are topped by three forked brackets, on which rest the crossbeams, which in turn support the upper part of the building. Here a system of beams and rafters bears the weight of the heavy tile roof. In the early examples, all these members are quite simple, but in later temples a more elaborate design led to the multiplication of these forms and thus destroyed the unpretentious beauty of the design. Amazingly enough no nails were used in these buildings—they were held up simply by fitting the pieces together. Although the more characteristically Japanese style uses unpainted wood, at Hōryu-ji the woodwork was painted a scarlet, which today has considerably faded. The total effect of the reddish wood against the white stucco of the walls, the blue-green of the latticework covering the windows, the grey tiles, and the green pines is extremely beautiful and impressive.
Next to the Kondō the most characteristic structure of the temple complex is the pagoda, which the Japanese call gōjūnoto, or five-storied tower (Plate 13). This typical Buddhist structure, whose purpose was to contain a sacred relic of a Buddhist saint, was originally derived from the Indian stupa, or relic mount. However, since in China it was modified by the form of the ancient Chinese watchtower, it bears little resemblance today to the Indian monument which inspired it. The Hōryū-ji pagoda has five stories, which is a common number in Japan, although three-story pagodas like that at nearby Hokki-ji, the other authentic Asuka building, also occur, as well as seven-story pagodas and in later periods even thirteen-story pagodas. The most authentic are no doubt the seven-story ones, since the pagoda represents the magic Mt. Meru, which itself has seven stories. In Japan, however, five was considered a more auspicious number because it represented the five directions, that is, the four conventional ones plus the center. Another interpretation given in Japan is that the five stories symbolize the five elements, earth, water, fire, wind, and sky. The pagoda has no real function—in fact there is usually no room inside nor are the balconies on the various floors meant to be used. It is looked upon as a symbolical representation of the universe, with the square platform on which it rests symbolizing the earth and the central pillar which runs through the entire structure symbolizing the world axis which unites heaven and earth. It is crowned by a square shape with an inverted bowl on top representing the palace of the gods and by nine umbrellas, one set above the other, symbolizing the kingship of the Buddha as the ruler of the universe. It terminates in a finial in the shape of a flaming jewel symbolizing the precious jewel of the Buddhist truth, which shines above everything. The original meaning of the flames has been lost; in Japan, where they are called suien, or spray, it is believed that they protect the building against fire. The pagoda as a whole symbolizes the supremacy of the Buddha and the Buddhist law which towers above the earth and its inhabitants, so it might be said that its function is similar to that of the spire in the Christian church. It is interesting to note that the central pillar is not rigidly anchored so that during an earthquake it may sway without cracking the structure. Here again, as in the Kondō, an extra roof was added later, which impairs the original design by obscuring the elegance of the ground floor. Again the most beautiful part is the gently curving tile roofs. Each is somewhat smaller than the one below, a device which adds variety to the structure, the silhouette of which is visible from far off as a memorial to the Buddha.
The third authentic seventh-century structure is the chūmon, or central gate, which is composed of the same architectual elements found in the Kondō (Plate 14). Its purpose is to admit the faithful to the inner courtyard of the temple from the outer precinct, which is entered through the Nandaimon, or Great South Gate. It has five columns on each side, forming two entrances and supporting the crossbeams, and there is a double roof similar to that of the Kondō. To the right and left of the portals are two large figures of Guardian Kings, or Niō, which were supposed to keep out evil spirits. The effect of the gate as a whole with its massive roofs and fine proportions is, like that of the rest of the seventh-century buildings at Hōryū-ji, very impressive. Although few in number, these buildings not only give us an insight into the nature of Asuka architecture, but they also show how the Japanese were able to absorb what was essentially a foreign style.
BUDDHIST SCULPTURE OF THE ASUKA PERIOD
Buddhist images reached Japan with the very first missionaries who came from Korea, for they played a central part in the religious rites of the Buddhist church. At first the Buddhist community had to rely upon foreign importations, and even those statues actually made in Japan were largely the work of Chinese and Korean craftsmen. The earliest dated native Buddhist image is the great Buddha of Asuka, formerly in the now-destroyed kondō of Gango-ji and now in the Angu-in near Nara. Unfortunately this large bronze image is badly damaged and gives a very inadequate idea of the grandeur of Asuka sculpture. Far better preserved is the Yakushi Buddha image at Hōryū-ji, which is dated 607 and according to its inscription was made by order of Shōtoku Taishi following the wishes of his father. Originally it served as the main icon of this famous temple. It is believed to be the work of the Tori school, since it is very close in style to the famous "Shaka Trinity," which is now the central image on the altar of the Kondō. Since it has an inscription indicating that it was made in 623 and is the work of Tori Bushi, the grandson of a Chinese immigrant, it is of particular interest both from a historical as well as an artistic point of view (Plate 15). This celebrated image, although made in Japan, shows how close the Japanese sculpture of this period was to its Korean and Chinese prototypes, for both in iconography and style it reflects the sculpture of China of the Six Dynasties. In the center is the figure of the seated Buddha Shaka, the savior of Buddhism, and at his sides are two standing bosatsu, or Buddhist saints. Behind him is a large flaming mandorla with a halo in the form of a lotus and small images of the seven Buddhas of the Past who preceded the historical Buddha. The representation of Shaka is characteristic of the type found in China about a century earlier. It shows the Buddha seated with crossed legs (the yogi position associated with meditation), and wearing a monk's garment, a symbol of the fact that Gautama renounced the world and became a monk. His face is serene, mirroring his inner harmony, and a smile plays over his lips, showing the spiritual joy of one who, having achieved enlightenment, is no longer troubled by the cares and sorrows of this world. On his forehead is a dot called urna, a third eye indicating that the Blessed One sees all, just as his large ears indicate that he hears all, and the ushnisha, or raised protuberance on his head, indicates that he knows all. His hair is short, for when he became a monk he cut off the flowing locks which he had worn as a royal prince. He raises one hand in the abhaya mudra, a gesture telling the faithful that they should have no fear, while the other hand is held with the palm up, the so-called vara mudra, or gesture of charity. He is seated upon a lotus, which in ancient Indian cosmology was a symbol of the earth, the center of which represents the Himalayas, while the petals stand for the four great countries of Asia, namely India, China, Central Asia, and Iran. Thus the lotus throne symbolizes the fact that the Buddha is regarded as the ruler of the entire world. The halo behind him and the flaming mandorla are ancient solar symbols probably indicating that originally the Buddha was a solar deity, but later merely a sign
