Balinese Hinduism, as we know it today, owes more to East Javanese influences between the 14th and 16th centuries. The latter have subsequently been shaped by local traditions to create a singular form of Hinduism peculiar to the island.
Reincarnation and a Cosmic Order
Hinduism is founded on the assumption of a cosmic order which extends to every aspect of the universe right down to the very smallest particle. This organising principle, or dhama, manifests itself in the persona of the gods, while demonic figures represent agents of disorder and chaos. As far as man is concerned he must try to conduct himself in a manner which is in keeping with his own personal dharma, the ultimate aim here being to gain liberation (moksa) from the endless cycle of reincarnation or rebirth to which he is otherwise destined. This objective can only be achieved by establishing a harmonious relationship with the rest of the universe, a beatific state which requires the subjugation of all worldly desires.
Microcosm and Macrocosm
Being in harmony with the rest of the universe requires, among other things, that one be correctly oriented in space. These ideas are represented, on the ground so to speak, in terms of local topographical features and the cardinal directions, which are attributed specific ritual and cosmological significations. In this respect, the island of Bali is conceived as a replica of the universe in miniature—a microcosm of the macrocosm.
Central to this scheme of things, is the idea of a tripartite universe consisting of an underworld (bubr), inhabited by demons and malevolent spirits; the world of men (buwah); and the heavens (swah), where the gods and deified ancestors reside. In Bali, the mountains are conceived as the holiest part of the island while the sea is cast as a region of impurity and malign influences; mankind is sandwiched in between, tending to his rice fields and visiting his temples to pay his obeisances to the gods and placate the forces of evil.
A Tripartite Universe
The Balinese division of the universe (tri loka) into three domains-buhr, buwah and swah-dovetails with the concept of tri angga which posits that everything in the Balinese cosmos can be similarly divided into three components: nista, madya and utama. These categories are hierarchically ordered in terms of a set of spatial coordinates-high, middle and low-which in the case of human beings find a corporeal correspondence in a division of the body into three constituent parts-head, torso and feet. Buildings and other man-made objects can similarly be divided into three components. A simple column, for example, consists of a base, a shaft and a capital. This tripartite scheme of things ultimately extends to everything in the universe, from the Hindu trinity (trimurti) of Brahma, Siwa and Vishnu, to the works of man, including the temples that he builds, reflecting an essential unity underlying the whole of creation.
The Archetypal Temple
Mount Meru
The idea of mountains as holy places, and more specifically as the abode of the gods, finds a natural accord with Indian mythology where the deities are portrayed as living in caves on the slopes of a sacred mountain-Mount Meru or Mahameru-which is situated at the centre of the universe. In Bali, this legendary mountain is generally identified with Gunung Agung, at 3,014 metres, the highest peak on the island.
Architecturally, Mount Meru is represented by a tower-like edifice of the same name. The latter are wooden structures, standing on a masonry base, surmounted by a series of stepped roofs, placed one on top of another which give them a general appearance not unlike that of a Chinese pagoda. Interestingly, the idea of a sacred mountain would also seem to be part of a much older cultural tradition in the region: prehistoric stone terraces, cut into the sides of prominent peaks, have been found in many parts of the Indonesian archipelago, including Bali, testifying to a very ancient veneration for high places.
Although no two Balinese temples are exactly alike, they nevertheless conform to a basic pattern which is more or less the same in every part of the island. Things could not be otherwise for Balinese temples are laid out according to strict cosmological principles—to alter the basic design would be to admit to a change in the nature of the universe.
Correct Orientation in Space
The idea of ritual purity plays a crucial role in Balinese religion being identified as an essential requirement for a favourable reincarnation in the next life. Closely linked to the notion of a universal or cosmic order, it rests, in part, on the understanding that everything has its proper place in the world and that one must be correctly positioned in relation to the rest of the universe if one is to achieve a. state of grace according to the principles of dharma.
Buildings are subject to the same rules of orientation and must be properly aligned if they are to serve the purpose they were designed for. As we have seen, in Bali, the mountains are the most holy of places, being identified as the abode of the gods, while the sea is represented as their antithesis, a place of impurity, the home of monstrous demons and other malevolent agencies. These ideas are defined locally by the terms kaja ('towards the mountains') and kelod ('towards the sea') and in southern Bali, where the majority of the island's population live, they correspond roughly with a north-south axis.
East (kangin) and west (kauh) are also important here, the east, where the sun rises, being identified with new life and other positive values, while the west, where it sets, is associated with death and decay. The point at which the sun reaches its zenith in the course of its daily passage makes up a third component in this scheme of things, which when combined with the kaja-kelod axis creates a nine-fold division of space based on the four cardinal directions. their four intermediaries, and the centre. This constitutes a kind of Balinese 'compass rose', the nawa sanga, where each point on the compass is identified with a particular deity in the Hindu pantheon and is ascribed a corresponding set of ritual or symbolic associations. In southern Bali, the northeast is conceived as the most auspicious, or sacred, direction, being a combination of 'towards the mountains' and 'east' (kaja-kangin).
Planning the Ideal Temple
The archetypal Balinese temple, or pura, consists of a series of three walled courtyards aligned on a linear axis running from the mountains to the sea. Ornamented gateways lead from one courtyard to the next and as one crosses each threshold one steps up a level.
In symbolic terms, the temple complex constitutes a spatial metaphor for the Hindu cosmos, the three courtyards replicating the tripartite nature of the universe with each ascending level representing a higher state of purity or sacredness.
The outermost courtyard, or jaba, serves a kind of reception area where people gather at festival times to eat and socialise, while the middle courtyard, or jaba tenga. represents a transitional space between the secular world of men and the sacred domain of the gods. The latter is constituted by the innermost courtyard or jeroan, which stands at the kaja end of the temple complex and is oriented towards the mountains from which, it is hoped, the gods will descend during temple ceremonies. This is where the most important shrines and ritual structures are located and where the gods are seated during temple festivals.
Temple layout
1. Bale kulku, or drum tower.
2. Bale gong-pavilion for gamelan performances.
3. Gedong sinub westra-for storing ritual paraphernalia.
4. Peranteng-kitchen for the preparation of food and offerings.
