bobbin wheels (Fig. 2.8) and large warping winders have resulted in great economies of labor. Traditional warping equipment such as is commonly used in songkèt home weaving was once employed (see Chapter 3, Figs. 3.9, 3.10), but the length of the warp produced by such means was limited. Today warps of up to a hundred meters in length are prepared on large winders that are driven by electricity in the more modern establishments.
The use of synthetic dyes in place of traditional vegetable dyes commenced very early and resulted in major changes in both technique and form. In 1908, Dutch administrators in Bulèlèng bemoaned the loss of quality in endek materials dyed with gaudy aniline dyes. Today naphthol or indanthrene and helanthrene dyes of Indonesian, Japanese or Bast European manufacture are used to the exclusion of all others (Fig. 2.5). The range of shades has been extended, and the dyeing process has been simplified and shortened. Whereas at one time some tyings were removed and new ones were applied for each new dye bath, today only a single bath is used to dye the basic color. The resists are then removed and the bundles arranged, stretched and hung up; other colors are then applied directly to the threads with a pair of toothed bamboo sticks, and rubbed in (Fig. 2.6). This simplified method of application (nyatri) became established in the 1930s and is possible only with synthetic dyestuffs. The winding-off devices for separating, winding up and spooling the colored weft yarns on bobbins have also been modernized.
Figure 2.7: Overskirt (kampuh). Endek on silk. Bulèlèng, first half of the 20th century. 160 x 106 cm. MEB IIc 19971.
The last and most crucial technical development came with the introduction of faster looms. In 1928, the first experiments were made with treadle looms set up in a few small workshops in Denpasar and Klungkung. During the Second World War, the Japanese introduced a modernized treadle loom on which coarse cotton cloth and sugar bags of coconut fiber yarn had to be woven. This so-called ATBM loom (alat tenun bukan mesin, or "unmechanized loom") was adapted to the needs of endek weaving during the following decades, and its use has been widely promoted by government programs and loans. Today it is used in all major workshops and manufactories (Figs. 2.9, 2.10).
The ATBM is a treadle loom with four pedals, a suspended batten, and two shafts with metal heddles for tabby weaving. Its most important feature, however, is a rapid-throwing mechanism which moves the shuttle to and fro automatically on the backward motion of the batten. On the ATBM, as much as two meters of material can be woven per day. The traditional cagcag loom is still used for weaving endek in less modernized areas, or by women who still weave a combination of endek and songkèt, as the complicated songkèt patterns cannot be produced on the ATBM.
Figure 2.8: Winding of weft yarns with a modern bobbin wheel using a bicycle wheel. Karangasem, Sidemen.
Figure 2.9: Weaving room in an endek manufactory. Karangasem, Sidemen.
Figure 2.10: Weaving endek on an ATBM loom. Karangasem, Sidemen.
CONDITIONS OF PRODUCTION
Endek textiles, usually in the form of finished clothing, are seen today all over the world—either as souvenirs brought home from Bali, or as commercial products on the international market—and it is natural to wonder about the conditions under which the fabrics are made. All endek cloths are still handwoven, and are therefore especially appreciated in industrialized countries where people must usually do with machine-made goods. "Handwoven" means that the cloths have either been made on a handloom at home or in a manufactory by a woman (less often by a man) weaver. Buyers who are not quality-minded often allow themselves to be dazzled by the low prices of cheap, imitation endek prints from Java and Lombok, not realizing the enormous amount of work that goes into the carefully tied bundles of yarn and the dyed patterning of genuine handwoven endek fabrics.
Developments of the past several years have established a clear pattern: only the larger manufacturers are able to adjust rapidly to changing dictates of fashion and demands of the market, while selling their products at competitive prices. Competition is fierce, and only establishments with a keen, market-oriented management and first-class production methods have a chance of survival Individual weavers who try to market their own products can no longer keep up.
Figure 2.11: Half of an outer hip cloth for men (kampuh) with a depiction of the demon Kalarau. Endek and perada on silk. Karangasem or Khmgkung, 1920-30. 143 x 68 cm. MEB IIc 18513a.
Figure 2.12: Selendang. Endek on silk. Bulèlèng, early 20th century. 292 x 48 cm. MEB IIc 17573.
Manufactories vary in size. In the village of Sidemen they have anywhere from 5 to 30 ATBM looms (Fig. 2.9); those in Gianyar have even more. The looms are set up in rows in a large hall and run from early morning—usually just before daybreak—until evening. Goods for sale by the meter are woven on ATBM looms, yielding bales measuring about 80 meters in length. A skillful weaver can produce up to two meters of endek per day.
Some manufactories loan single looms out to women with several small children so they can work at home. Materials, colors and patterns are determined by the manufacturer—usually a family-run operation—and given to the women with appropriate instructions. Thus the homeworkers produce directly for the manufactories, the only difference being that their workplace is at home. The quantity produced by homeworkers, because of the double job they have to do, is noticeably less than that of women in the manufactories, most of whom work an 8-hour day (sometimes longer, as they are paid according to output).
Figure 2.13: Women attending the cremation of a brahman priestess, dressed in formal apparel with a wraparound skirt of songkèt and endek in the geringsing style.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF HOME-WORK
There are significant differences between women who produce songkèt at home and those who produce endek. Women from all levels of society weave songkèt at home, not always out of direct economic needs but sometimes to earn a bit of extra money. Their economic position is thus strong—they become money-earners through their weaving and sometimes defray the greater part of the costs of maintaining a family. Songkèt weavers work on cagcag looms which are their personal property; they select their own yarns, colors and patterns themselves and buy what they need to weave cloths which appeal to them and of which they are proud. They sell to dealers or take the textiles to market themselves. They much prefer not to become dependent on contractors who are an encroachment on their autonomy.
