were sent to the Belfast Museum. In Movius’s report, published in the Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland in 1937, the author commended Blake Whelan because he had ‘noted the stratigraphy and photographed the exposed section’.117
The Harvard Mission archaeologists wished to excavate some megalithic tombs, which they believed were introduced to Ireland from Spain, and accordingly they identified some undisturbed tombs they wished to dig. They were interested in excavating Rathcroghan which they believed was built by the Celts who had arrived in Ireland from the continent about the fourth century BC. Hencken expressed an interest in the Moytirra megalithic cemetery as it was the only site in Ireland which had produced Breton bell beakers at that time. These highly decorated pots date from the Late Neolithic period through to the Bronze Age (c.2900–1800 BC) and were found over large areas of central and western Europe. He was also interested in monuments such as the stone tumuli visible on the summits of Keishcorran, Slieve Deane and Ox Mountains, a lake-dwelling near Ballymote, numerous forts, and the monastic settlement on Inismurray.
However, despite its archaeological riches, Sligo was considered to be unsuitable for a social and anthropological survey. The reason for this, as Warner pointed out, was that ‘Sligo has always been one of the gateways of Ireland’. Hencken considered that:
It is unfortunate that this very factor, which helps to render Sligo useless from the point of view of social anthropology, makes it of extreme archaeological significance, especially at the beginning of the Metal Ages, when the dolmens were being built and when Ireland played a leading role in the cultural development of Northern and Western Europe. At only one other time, the early Christian period, has Irish civilization been of comparable importance.118
Hencken registered his interest in the Carrowkeel passage-tomb cemetery as it ‘closely resembled architecturally ‘the best cupola tombs of the Iberian peninsula’. He was also fascinated by the passage tomb complex at Carrowmore in Sligo.119 Morris showed him the megalithic monument known as Leac Chon Mhic Ruis, ‘an immense cairn upon which is a megalithic monument 100 feet long consisting of a courtyard upon which open three double-chambered galleries’. Morris also showed him other similar tombs.120
Hencken came to the conclusion that if Clare was decided upon for the full survey – social, physical and archaeological – it would be best to do an archaeological survey based on published materials. Sites could be planned, photographed and some selected for excavation. As he regarded few sites to be suitable for excavation in Clare, other forts, lake-dwellings and tumuli could be excavated around the country in an effort to throw light on Clare in particular and on Ireland in general. As Clare formed part of the old kingdom of Connaught he thought it advisable that other sites selected should be in this area. This would include the dolmens of Sligo and Rathcroghan. Warner subsequently wrote to Hencken and expressed the view that County Clare was better from his point of view. Hencken was not as enthusiastic about excavating sites in Clare as he had been about those in Sligo as the former ‘has only a few of much interest to the excavator’. He regarded the numerous dolmens of Clare to ‘belong to the family of large cists, the least interesting and instructive type’. He was also disappointed at the number of them that were ‘badly wrecked’ and were therefore unlikely to conceal undisturbed prehistoric burials. He was convinced that ‘although Clare is not the richest archaeological area in Ireland, the Irish field as a whole, which is a largely untouched one, promises amply to repay the work now contemplated’.121 In 1931, Hencken’s attention was drawn to a large Bronze Age mound at Poulawack, and a cliff fort at Cahercommaun, both in County Clare.122 Both of these sites were to be excavated by the Harvard Mission in 1934.123
Hencken expressed a preference for excavating in Sligo because it was less costly than Clare where workmen were paid 4/- a day before the change from the gold standard. This linked a currency’s value to that of gold and a country on the gold standard could not increase the amount of money in circulation without also increasing its gold reserves. America abandoned the gold standard in 1933. Hencken came to the conclusion that ‘it cannot be said that Clare is a very hopeful area for excavating, though there are a few sites worth trying’.124 He also noted that ‘Much excavation could be done in Sligo for comparatively little money, since workmen could be hired for 3/- or 3/6 a day before the abandonment of the gold standard and probably no question of compensation would arise’.125 When Hencken and Movius visited the Bronze Age burial site at Ballyglass, County Mayo, to organise the excavations, they found to their dismay that the locals demanded exorbitant wages of a pound a day and landowners expected expensive compensation. They were unwilling to pay wages of this amount as it would set a precedent for future excavations. Mahr travelled to the area on their behalf and managed to renegotiate the terms so that workmen accepted ten shillings a day. He was unable to reduce the level of compensation due to ‘superstitious fears’. Compensation of £5 was expected for a small burial compared with a similar amount paid to a farmer for a large crannóg in the Midlands.126 The excavation only took one day. A cremated burial was discovered and artefacts included a rare type of bronze axe and several flint implements.127
Hencken was interested in historic sites, reflecting his multidisciplinary training by Hector Munro Chadwick, the English philologist and historian who founded the ‘Archaeology and Anthropology Tripos Section B’, at the University of Cambridge. Hencken believed that the numerous forts in County Clare ‘probably began with the Celtic invasion of the Iron Age’.128 He was interested in one called Cahermacnaughten because it was the seat of the O’Davorens. This stone ring fort was inhabited by the O’Davoren family and their law school until the end of the seventeenth century. However, he thought that it was unlikely that many artefacts would be discovered from the stone forts as there was so little soil above the native limestone. Also, the problem of shifting a large amount of stones from the interior of these forts before excavation could begin would be costly. There were some forts suitable for excavation, including the very large Cahermoghan fort with its triple fortification. This was of interest because the Bronze Age ‘great Clare gold hoard’ had been found nearby at Mooghaun in 1854. Hencken considered that ‘the place looks more promising than any other in the county’.129 Among other historical sites in County Clare which aroused Hencken’s curiosity was Magh Adhair, a flat-topped mound surrounded by a fosse, and the inauguration place of the Kings of Thomond; and the monastic site of Inis Cealtra. In 1931, the Harvard Mission archaeologists were of the opinion that the Celts built the crannógs and were interested in tracing evidence for Celtic continuity in the archaeological record. In his report, Hencken wrote that ‘both the forts and the crannógs were occupied in Early Christian times, and indeed, some of the oldest monasteries were closely patterned after the former. It was at this time that Ireland produced its celebrated Celtic Art which probably represents one of the highest cultural levels ever attained by the early peoples of western Europe’.130
The crannógs selected by Mahr and Hencken for excavation proved to have very rich artefactual assemblages. Approximately two thirds of the work programme of the five Harvard Missions was devoted to carrying out excavations on three crannóg sites – Ballinderry 1 in County Westmeath, Ballinderry 2 in County Offaly and Lagore in County Meath.131
De Valera and the Harvard Mission
County Clare was chosen as a representative county for the detailed anthropological survey. No doubt this decision pleased Éamon de Valera who represented East Clare in the Dáil. Warner wrote to de Valera on 25 July 1932 explaining the nature of the proposed project and promising that it would be financed by the Harvard School of Business Administration:
The proposed research in County Clare by Harvard University will study the socio-economic life of the people and will excavate and survey several archaeological sites. We will be particularly concerned with the study of market areas, the relation of farm holding to market areas and family life, the interplay of social relations between town and county, and in general the total economic structure and life of the town of Ennis and the county.132
Warner believed that they could add to the fund of economic knowledge that they were obtaining in America
