general, the metallic foil is slightly thicker than the usual gold leaf and is usually used flush with the ground or slightly elevated. Occasionally fairly heavy (thick) pieces are used to accentuate the design, such as indicating an object actually made out of gold rather than for purely ornamental purposes. The following techniques fall under this heading:
1) kirigane (cut metal). The metallic foil is cut into small various-sized squares or rectangles. These pieces are inlaid more or less irregularly side by side as a mosaic similar to that of oki-hirame or irregularly spaced according to their decorative use (Figs. 56, 57). They may be placed so that their dimensions gradually decrease. On old lacquer these squares of gold are mixed with squares of silver. Such metallic pieces are also often used in the design itself and are most frequently seen on rocks, on the heights of hills in a landscape, on clouds, on trunks of old trees, etc. (Figs, 53, 94). Kirigane is occasionally seen as a nashiji ground used mainly on sword hilts, where it is done in very narrow interspersed parallel rectangles. The technique of kirigane apparently dates from about the mid-14th century, and we know that it was frequently used by Koami Nagashige (Koami X) during the mid-17th century.
2) heidatsu and hyomon. Techniques of encrusted design using sheets of gold or silver foil. (See sections on imbedded and encrusted lacquer, pages 126, 127; see also Fig. 16.)
The Pictorial and Decorative Designs
The techniques of background decoration using metallic dustings have been described, as well as the various types of lacquer used for the basis. The methods of using and combining all of these materials into the final pictorial and decorative effects have already been classified. In general, the final design, no matter what technique is used, is either flat or raised to varying reliefs. Flat relief may be effected by level applications of lacquer for the design or by rubbing down, as in togidashi makie. Relief may be obtained by building up the design in lacquer or by means of encrustations or by carving out the lacquer (guri, tsuishu) or the wooden base itself (Kamakura-bori). Besides using varying degrees of relief, the design itself is brought out by employing numerous techniques, such as the following: 1) repeated metallic dustings, as in nashiji, 2) colored lacquers, 3) painting with lacquer solutions, 4) carving into the lacquer, 5) imbedding and encrusting various materials, and 6) combinations of these methods. Each of these techniques is to be described separately.
There are three different basic varieties of the makie, or "sown picture" technique: 1) togidashi, or rubbed lacquer, 2) hiramakie, or flat makie, and 3) takamakie, or makie in relief. These will be explained in detail below.
A second type of lacquer technique is accomplished by cutting the design into the lacquer. Examples are guri (crook ring), tsuishu (heap red), tsuikoku (heap black), and Zonsei.
A third type of lacquer is encrusted lacquer. In this technique the design consists entirely or in part of small or large precarved, relatively heavy pieces of various materials which are encrusted into the prepared lacquer. The material may consist of silver, gold, lead, pewter, metal alloys, mother-of-pearl, coral, ivory, faience, etc., and usually projects to varying heights beyond the level of the lacquer, but may also be imbedded level with the surface of the lacquer. This encrusted type of work was quite often done in conjunction with metal artisans and was also associated with such famous names as Korin, Ritsuo, Shibayama, and Somada.
There are dozens of other varieties of specific types of lacquer ware, some of which are variations of the techniques already mentioned.
Makie (Sown or Sprinkled Picture)
This technique consists essentially of building up the design by repeated alternating applications of thin coats of lacquer followed by metallic dustings and rubbings. The design is therefore gradually applied in layers by dusting rather than being painted on with lacquer. In this way delicate and graduated shadings and a sense of depth may be obtained even when the final surface is completely flat. Various degrees of relief may be obtained by this method by building up specific areas of the design with lacquer rather than applying the lacquer to the entire surface. As previously mentioned, there is no room for any errors in using this technique, since the dustings cannot be removed from the tacky lacquered surface. The artist must visualize in advance the exact order of his dustings, which will bring out the final desired pictorial effect. The art of makie is typically and basically of Japanese invention, dating back to the Nara period and ultimately brought to magnificent artistic and technical perfection which no country, including China, has ever been able to imitate successfully.
TOGIDASHI (POLISHING OUT)
The term literally means "to bring out by rubbing" (togu=ta rub, dasu=to bring out). The basis lacquer is prepared up to the first coating of ro-urushi. The design is drawn in ink on specially prepared paper and is traced with a rat's-hair brush on the opposite side of the paper with heated moist lacquer. The outlined lacquer design is now rubbed off onto the lacquered surface with a whalebone spatula. The lines are dusted with powdered white whetstone to improve the visibility of the outline, which is then powdered with metallic powders or pulverized colored lacquer before the piece is dried in the damp press. The outlines are now gone over with ro-se-urushi and dried, and the gilding or powdering process is repeated. Finally the entire surface is coated with ro-urushi, covering the entire design with this black lacquer. The surface is now ground down to the underlying gold (or other) design, and the process is repeated. By this method the design is brought out by the grinding down and has a softened effect at the edges, as in pastel work. The surface is now covered with clear lacquer (seshime-urushi) and the product finished as in the previously described honji method, the final effect being an absolutely even, polished surface.
In more modern manufacture the design is drawn directly on the object with white lead. Togidashi is a very old method and was used as early as 724. It is used in combination with raised lacquer for distant effects, including mists, clouds, and mountaintops; for softly sweeping and curving streams; for leaves fading into the distance, and the like. In some cases the nearer leaves are done in raised lacquer and the more distant ones in togidashi. A similar technique, indicating perspective, is used in the metal arts, combining medium and low relief. However, the same effect of perspective can be even more subtly obtained by using various shades and "faintness" of design by employing togidashi alone (Figs. 24, 67, 151). There are several varieties of togidashi:
1) iroe togidashi. This is done in gold, silver, and different-colored lacquers. The families of Shunsho and Shiomi Masanari were especially noted for this technique (Figs. 6, 68, 216).
2) sumie togidashi. Here the design is executed only in black lacquer powder, imitating sumie ink painting. All shades from black to light gray are obtained, simulating the various washes of sumie painting. The background is usually of plain gold or silver. Noted for this technique were Toyo, Hakuho, and Shoryusai (Figs. 20, 22, 209).
3) shishiai togidashi. This technique, combining relief makie and togidashi, was used in the Muromachi period to produce flattened, burnished relief and high relief.
HIRAMAKIE (FLAT SOWN PICTURE)
This is the name given to all gold lacquer which has a flat surface. The design itself is almost level with the background. The outline of the design is transferred to the prepared lacquer basis, as noted in togidashi. The spaces are filled in with shita-maki-urushi on which gold powder is dusted. The object is dried, and a layer of clear lacquer (Yoshino-urushi) is applied. After drying and polishing, details are drawn with a rat's-hair brush (neji-jude), using inside line lacquer (ke-uchi-urushi). After dusting with gold and drying, the cleat lacquer is again applied and dried and polished. Final marking and shading is now done with shading lacquer (jo-hana-urushi). In general, the effect in this flat lacquer is obtained through the repeated subtle graduated dustings. In hiramakie the outlines (and often the details) of the designs and the background motifs are not actually completely flat but are very slightly raised (Fig. 58).
TAKAMAKIE
