color, was that which came from the protuberance around the huge bill of a tropical bird called the hornbill.
Horn was a frequently used material. Staghorn, which actually was antler rather than horn, was preferred, but netsuke carved from water-buffalo and rhinoceros horn are in existence, although rare.
During the early years when netsuke carving was largely a side industry of craftsmen in other art areas, or a hobby of dilettante carvers, many materials—and combinations of materials—were used: agate, jade, coral, amber, marble, porcelain, various metals (usually combined with wood or ivory in the bun-shaped netsuke called kagamibuta), woven reeds, and lacquer. As the demand for netsuke increased and netsuke carving became a vocation for many carvers, the variety of materials decreased, and most of the netsuke produced in the nineteenth century were of wood or ivory.
With the end of the netsuke as a functional part of Japanese attire and its emergence as an export and collector's item, ivory became the popular material for these little art objects. This continued until the World War II years, when luxury materials like ivory were not available. Most of the carvers were then either in military service or working in factories, and the few netsuke carved in their spare time were fashioned in wood.
Today there are not over two or three netsuke artist-carvers who work exclusively in wood, although several who generally carve in ivory make an occasional wood netsuke. It would be safe to say, however, that over eighty percent of contemporary netsuke are ivory. Mother-of-pearl, semiprecious stones, and bits of gold and other metals are sometimes used for inlay and decorative purposes. Stain and color are applied quite extensively and always by the artist himself.
First-rank carvers are always concerned about the quality of their netsuke ivory. Fine-grained, lustrous ivory has a tactile quality sought and enjoyed by collectors. Even in stained or colored netsuke, the crossing, reticulated lines of fine ivory are usually distinguishable.
The greater portion of ivory imported into Japan today comes from the Congo, although much also comes from other African areas—Kenya, Zanzibar, Tanganyika, Uganda, South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia, and Nigeria. Ivory from the Congo is the hardest of African ivory, but ivory from India, Thailand, and Cambodia is still harder. Since India and Thailand are now protecting their elephants, ivory from those countries is sold only locally and is no longer exported. It should also be noted that under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 the United States cooperates with the international community in protecting animals threatened with extinction and that any ivory netsuke shipped to or from Japan must be accompanied by a guarantee that the netsuke is made of ivory from an elephant legally killed in the country of origin, which country must be named in the guarantee. The harder ivory is preferred by most netsuke carvers, but soft ivory can be used for fifteen-or sixteen-inch okimono.
Since trade restrictions against Communist China have been relaxed, Chinese ivory carvers are making jewelry and various types of decorative figures for the tourist trade. Recognizing the potential in this business, the Chinese government has begun to import ivory for their carvers. This, among other reasons, has caused a sharp rise in the price of ivory in Japan. In fact, the price more than doubled between 1969 and 1971 and has continued to rise.
There are three companies directly importing ivory to Japan: Miyakoshi, Kitagawa, and Kita. Ivory manufacturers, netsuke agents, or dealers can buy tusks at any time, but when the importers are overstocked, they sell at auction. Normally, ivory auctions take place once or twice a month. Usually, a whole tusk must be purchased, but occasionally some "points" (pointed ends of tusks) appear at auction when the African exporter has sent the poorer parts of tusks to other countries and only the points to Japan.
Tusk points are usually bought for netsuke carving and are 50-70 centimeters (20-28 inches) in length. The fine-grained, hard ivory comes from this part of the tusk, which is solid. At the larger end of the point, a slice can sometimes be cut into three triangular pieces for three netsuke. The middle part of the tusk, also solid, can be used for large figures and an occasional netsuke. The bottom, or large end of the tusk, is hollow and can be used for some types of okimono as well as for chopsticks, flowers, or accessories. No part of the tusk is wasted.
Netsuke material must be of high grade, and sometimes there will be no ivory of netsuke quality in a whole tusk. Dealers and agents who furnish ivory to their carvers often buy netsuke ivory from shops or manufacturers of chopsticks, jewelry, flowers, and other ivory articles. Since these items do not require top-grade ivory, the good ivory can be saved and resold for netsuke carving.
Some merchants import ivory and hire carvers to produce all kinds of ivory pieces: jewelry, flowers, fruit, okimono, and other decorative pieces, as well as netsuke, for their own shops in Japan or to sell to other local or foreign dealers. All ivory must be hand-carved, and every carver has his specialty. All ivory work is done by the carver in his own home, and the merchant-importer has both first-rank artist-carvers and division (bungyo) carvers working for him.
The latter carvers are craftsmen—many of them highly skilled—who make the inexpensive netsuke found in shops and stores all over the world, as well as in shops throughout Japan. These netsuke, usually carved from models supplied by the employer, lack the originality and the time-consuming, meticulous attention to detail that are found in the first-rank carvers' work. But they are hand-crafted, typical Japanese mementos that the tourist, the person not yet “hooked" on serious netsuke collecting, or someone who cannot afford the higher cost of the better contemporary netsuke, can easily carry, keep, handle, and enjoy.
WORKMANSHIP
Japan is a small, insular country. The prewar Japanese were generally small-boned and small in stature. Their penchant for artistic expression on a small scale and their digital skill can readily be seen in the development of such art forms as sword furniture and netsuke carving.
Toggles and handicraft articles somewhat similar to netsuke have been found in other countries, but the scrupulous, skillful workmanship and the delicate and precise carving of netsuke are virtually unknown outside of Japan.
Time meant little to the early carver. Days, weeks, or months went into the making of a netsuke masterpiece. As any craftsman knows, the task of reducing elaborately ornate or abstractly simple designs to an incredibly small scale requires infinite patience and time as well as great skill and talent. Unfortunately, with the extremely high cost of living in Japan today, time is no longer an expendable component of netsuke making. Due to pressures from dealers and economic demands, occasionally there is quite a spread in the quality of the work from a first-rank carver. In short, in addition to his first-rate netsuke (which may include true masterpieces) there may be pieces that obviously have taken considerably less time to produce or for other reasons are below the capability of the carver.
Two questions are often asked by collectors or potential collectors: “Does the contemporary carver use any power tools for rough work or for polishing?" and “How does the workmanship of a first-rate netsuke carved today compare with that of antique netsuke?"
A few first-rank carvers today own dental drills which they use very sparingly on less than ten percent of their total work. A few also make limited use of an electric polisher. In this connection, it must be remembered that over one hundred years ago some netsuke carvers employed lathes, although these tools were simple and rough. The majority of living carvers use no power tools; they carve with self-made tools and hand-polish their netsuke. The various facets of the workmanship involved in the making of a netsuke will be explored in detail in the following chapter.
Comparison of contemporary and antique netsuke involving comparable techniques will compel even the most prejudiced antique-netsuke collector to admit that the workmanship of some of today's first-rank carvers is fully as admirable as that of the early masters. The absence of functional restrictions often takes a contemporary carver into highly imaginative, intricate designs, involving delicate, exquisite
