This view was based on a sketch by H.C. Cornelius (see page 11), it depicts large trees growing upon the monument which do not, however, obscure the main outline of the structure.
As early as 2,000 years ago, many parts of the vast Asian continent were already linked by well-established trade routes. Buddhism spread from India to mainland and insular Southeast Asia along these land and sea routes during the first millennium AD.
Asian Trade Routes ca. A.D. 800
The Sailendra became the dominant political family in Java around AD 780, when they displaced the Sanjaya, an older elite who were devotees of Hinduism and had been important since at least AD 732— the date of the earliest known inscription to mention a kingdom in central Java.
Tension between members of the Sailendra and Sanjaya families must have stemmed from competition for political status, but probably had no effect on religious practices. Religion has never been a source of contention or conflict among the Javanese. The two families inter-married with the result that the children could give their loyalty to either the Sailendra or the Sanjaya.
In AD 832 the Sailendra queen, Sri Kahulunan, married a Sanjaya known as Rakai Pikatan. Pikatan gave donations to various Buddhist sanctuaries, but devoted his greatest resources and energy to the construction of the stunning Hindu complex at Prambanan.
Pikatan's reign was not entirely peaceful. Inscriptions and legends allude to war with a Sailendran prince, Balaputra, who aspired to become paramount ruler. The prince was defeated and fled to Sumatra. After about AD 850, the Sanjaya held supreme power in Java, and without the support of the Sailendra, no more great Buddhist monuments were built on the island.
Traders along the Silk Route introduced Buddhism to China during the first centuries AD, and the new religion soon acquired a firm foothold beside the indigenous Chinese beliefs of Taoism and Confucianism.
A sea link between India and China was forged around AD 400. This new route was opened by Indonesian sailors who had several centuries of experience in maritime trade with other parts of Southeast Asia and India. Buddhist pilgrims voyaged with increasing frequency through the archipelago during the 7th and 8th centuries. The records they have left tell us that Java and Sumatra were major centers of international Buddhist scholarship during this period.
Construction
It is impossible to calculate how much it cost the Javanese to build Borobudur in terms of labor and materials. Stone was plentiful and did not have to be transported far. The workmen probably used wooden carts to haul boulders from the nearby riverbed.
Geological and archaeological studies of the ground beneath Borobudur have shown that its foundation consists of a natural hill which was reshaped by ancient Javanese builders.
Construction at Borobudur probably began around AD 760 and seems to have been completed by about 830. Work was probably not always kept up at the same rate during this 70-year period, but proceeded in spurts. At some times, many men must have been employed, at others only a few, and activity seems to have ceased completely during certain periods.
At least one part of the monument collapsed during its construction. Perhaps other lesser setbacks also occurred. The original plan was simpler and required less labor, but plans for Borobudur changed several times and each new design necessitated more work.
Unskilled laborers performed most of the work during the early stages: hauling the stones, leveling the earth for the foundation, and terracing the hillside. The monument's stones each weigh about 100 kilograms. If one man with one cart could transport just one stone per day, it would have taken 100 men working every day about 30 years to haul one million of them up the site. Perhaps another 100 men would have been needed to load and unload the carts and hew the boulders into rectangular shapes. If, as seems likely, they worked during only half of the year, 200 men would have been required to accomplish each of these tasks.
The number of laborers needed to carve the statues and reliefs is more difficult to estimate. A modern craftsman can complete a large Buddha statue in about one month. Thus, a group of ten carvers, working at the same pace, could have completed the Buddha statues on Borobudur in about five years. Work on the reliefs was probably divided among several groups of sculptors. The masters first sketched the main outlines of the scenes, and their apprentices then did most of the rough work. The masters returned in the final stages to apply the finishing touches to the panels.
Unfortunately, the very last stage of construction is no longer visible except in minute traces. The stones we view today when we visit Borobudur were not meant to be seen at all, for the entire monument was originally coated with white plaster and then painted. The plasterwork would have required skill, for very fine details were molded using this medium. Borobudur would then have appeared not as a dark gray mass, but as a beacon of color hovering above the uniform green of the rice fields and coconut groves.
The entrance to the eastern stairway, leading from ground level to a walkway atop the stone encasement concealing the "hidden foot" of the monument.
These rough estimates suggest that Borobudur could have been built in about 30 years by a workforce of several hundred men working every day. In reality, the rhythm of work undoubtedly fluctuated seasonally to accommodate the agricultural cycle, and took 60 or more years to complete. The construction of Borobudur was a sizable task, and the achievement of the ancient Javanese is even more impressive when we consider that other temples were being built at the same time.
The majority of workers were farmers as well as part-time artisans who may have donated their labor to earn religious merit. Evidence from other temples suggests that each village contributed a group of men who formed a fixed unit within the overall labor force. Borobudur is impressive not merely on account of its sheer size, but because it shows how large a proportion of the Javanese population had creative talents.
An aerial view of Borobudur from the north. Visitors on the upper terrace cluster around a stupa containing the statue known as Kakek Bima, which is credited by the Javanese with special powers.
Religious authorities and architects probably supervised the daily activities, but the stimulus and material support must have come from the ruler himself.
Early Javanese Society
Borobudur tells us far more about the ancient Javanese than Javanese history can tell us about Borobudur. The monument is built of over a million blocks of stone laboriously hauled up a hill from a nearby riverbed, then cut and carved with great artistry. This in itself is significant, for it demonstrates that Javanese society in AD 800 produced enough surplus food and labor to support a great deal of activity which did not produce direct economic benefits. The Javanese must have had abundant manpower to haul the stones, skilled craftsmen to carve them, and well-organized institutions to coordinate such an ambitious and complex project.
A scene from the Rudrayana story in the avadana series on the main wall of the first gallery. This is one of Borobudur's most famous panels. The faithful minister Hiru arrives at his new home. The ship on the right is one of the best sources of information we
