form that accommodates soft product variety. Figure 1-3(d) illustrates the flow-line manufacturing system.
The manufacturing systems discussed above are summarized in the table of Figure 1-4 as shown on page 9 according to product complexity, variety, and volume. Also, it cannot be emphasized enough that many manufacturing facilities will have more than one of these systems and/or a variation of some system as dictated by the product definition. Consider Figure 1-6. This figure demonstrates how some manufacturing systems feed into other manufacturing systems to produce the finished product. In this example a flow-line manufacturing system in the form of an assembly line produces the finished product. The components of the finished products are produced on various other manufacturing systems as shown. This is typical of most, if not all, assembled products.
Figure 1-4 Manufacturing systems versus product complexity, variety, and volume
Figure 1-5 Manufacturing support systems
Figure 1-6 Multiple manufacturing processes used to make a product
1.2.4 Manufacturing Support Systems
Another key ingredient to the conversion process is the manufacturing support system. Manufacturing support systems provide the management of the business operations of the facility and the manufacturing system. Thus, the success of a facility, in terms of productivity and thus profitability, is dictated by how well its manufacturing support systems manage its manufacturing system.
A manufacturing support system utilizes people and procedures to manage the manufacturing system and the overall facility. Whereas the manufacturing system processes the raw material, the manufacturing support system processes information necessary to accomplish the conversion of the raw material into the finished product. Accounting, customer service, marketing, human resources, product design, manufacturing engineering, materials engineering, quality control, production planning, and shop floor control are all good examples of manufacturing support systems. Figure 1-5 as shown on page 9 demonstrates how manufacturing support systems interact with the manufacturing system.
Through understanding the different manufacturing systems and manufacturing support systems, as well as how the systems interact, the seeds for automation are sown. The next section will define automation in more precise terms and identify specific types of automation.
Webster’s Online Dictionary (http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/ automation) defines automation as “a highly technical implementation; usually involving electronic hardware; automation replaces human workers by machines.” In his first book Automation, Production Systems and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 2nd ed. (2001), M.P. Groover defined automation, when directed strictly toward the manufacturing environment, as “...technology concerned with the application of mechanical, electronic and computer-based systems to operate and control production” (p. 9).
Each of these definitions provides some key terms and phrases. However, Webster’s definition implies that automation replaces or eliminates workers and that automation is accomplished only with machines—statements that are misleading. Automation does not always replace the worker; it more often displaces the worker to other tasks. Additionally, automation can be implemented in many forms. Often it is with a machine, but it can also be a device or software added to an existing process.
For example, consider the automation of the manual drafting process. The implementation of computer-aided drafting (CAD) is a great example of the automation of a manufacturing support system. CAD automates the creation of engineering drawings, a key component in the manufacturing material conversion process. Prior to the implementation of CAD, engineering drawings were created by hand with paper and pencil at drafting tables. The combination of computer hardware (the machine) and CAD software automated this process. Early CAD systems were two-dimensional and essentially duplicated the manual drawing process, but were much more accurate and faster than manual drafting. Human intervention was still required to operate the software, but to a lesser degree. Hence, manual drafters (the workers) were not replaced. The author observed in the plants with which he was associated that most of the drafters were trained to operate the CAD system. Since the CAD system is more productive than manual drafting, most excess drafters (workers) were displaced to other activities or other companies, and eventually an entire new generation of drafters trained primarily in CAD.
When companies first switched to CAD from manual drafting, a machine, the computer, was required. Computers have since become standard pieces of equipment in the engineering department. Hence, subsequent automation of the CAD process was accomplished only with software, an example of how automation does not always entail insertion of a machine into the process. Consider another example, solid modeling software. Solid modeling software automates the product development process, including the two-dimensional CAD drafting process. It models products as three-dimensional solid objects in the virtual world of a computer. The model enables better visualization of the product. Additionally, rapid prototypes, computer numerical control programs, and engineering drawings can all be created directly from this model.
The definitions above imply that automation only occurs in a production environment. However, automation can occur anywhere people are performing tasks. Consider a grocery store. Modern grocery stores have electronic barcode scanners to determine the price of goods purchased during checkout. The barcode scanners automated the task of a cashier manually entering the price of each item into the cash register. Now, many stores have added automated checkout, which allows the consumer to swipe the purchased goods and pay a machine directly, further reducing the level of cashier involvement. Often this allows more checkout lines than the store would normally be able to payroll. However, a worker is still needed to supervise the automated checkouts and assist shoppers as needed.
Machines and or systems that perform tasks automatically inevitably consist of some combination of mechanical technology (gears, cams, bearings...), electrical technology, and/or computer technology. Early automated machines were mostly mechanical. More modern automated equipment utilizes electrical and computer technology to a greater extent. Additionally, many automated machines or systems are combinations of many smaller automated machines. Thus, automated machines can be further automated with the application of even more technology.
The preceding discussion highlights the fact that a more encompassing definition of automation is needed than is typically found in the literature. So, the author defines automation here as follows:
Automation is the application of mechanical, electrical, and/or computer technology to reduce the level of human participation in task performance.
Note that in this definition “task” is an intentionally vague term. Tasks are not limited to work-related activities. They can be related to any activity requiring human participation. Consider the television remote control, for example. It automated the task of manually changing the television channel, a purely entertainment-related activity. The definition
