process, have them practice in small groups or pairs as the class moves to different locations.
Critical Steps and Difficult Aspects
As students practice making inductive inferences, it is important to make sure they are aware of particular complexities that accompany the process. First, when students are learning to make inductive inferences, they may state conclusions that are not the result of seeing patterns or connections in information; that is, they may state ideas that are not actually inferences. For example:
These are not inferences. Students need many opportunities to practice generating conclusions that represent patterns or connections among observations or pieces of information.
Second, students need to base their inferences on observation and information rather than assumptions and biases. For example, concluding that Edgar Allan Poe was obsessed with death because “Poe’s poems are weird” is not an inference because it is based on opinion, not observation. To help students understand what constitutes objective information or observations and what is considered a subjective opinion, assumption, or bias, give examples of each (as shown in table I.16) and discuss what makes each distinctive.
Table I.16: Examples of Objective and Subjective Information
| Objective Information or Observations | Subjective Opinions, Assumptions, or Biases |
| Samantha has her head down on her desk. | Samantha is pouting. |
| The little boy ran away from the woman. | The little boy is naughty. |
| He walked quickly to the door. | He wanted to see what was outside. |
| There is a lot of salt in this food. | This food is terrible. |
| She has a temperature of 101 degrees. | She has the flu. |
Finally, inferences should be based on as many observations or pieces of information as possible. Inferences cannot be proven to be true, but they become more likely as more information is found to support them.
Distinguishing Connotation From Denotation
Distinguishing connotation from denotation involves recognizing different implications or nuances among words with similar definitions (such as aroma and stench). Teachers can use the following process to help students understand the difference between the two:
1.Explain connotations and denotations.
2.Ask students to generate examples of terms that have the same denotation but different connotations.
3.Ask students to think of multiple denotations for a particular term.
Here, we provide detail about each step of the process.
Explain Connotations and Denotations
Denotations are definitions or literal meanings of words. Connotations are more nuanced—they are different shades of meaning associated with a particular term or phrase. To illustrate, the words aroma and stench are similar in denotation; both refer to strong smells. However, the word aroma has positive connotations (it usually describes a good smell) while the word stench has negative connotations (it usually describes a bad smell). Additionally, the same word can have multiple denotations. For example, the word run can mean to move quickly, to drip or leak, to use a running play in football, and so on.
Examples of Connotations
To help students understand connotation, ask them to list a number of terms that refer to the same concept (that is, synonyms for the concept). For example, given the concept smart, students might come up with a variety of synonyms such as clever, intelligent, brainy, shrewd, nerdy, bright, brilliant, and so on. Ask them to then classify the terms they generate into those with positive, negative, or neutral connotations. Once the terms have been sorted into categories, have students discuss the defining characteristics of each category.
Examples of Multiple Denotations
To help students understand denotation, ask them to list all the denotations of simple words that have multiple meanings (for example, play, blow, break, split, run, fly, fall, light, and space). Students might explain that play can refer to a theatrical production, to something children do, to participating in sports, and so on. The overall goal of this activity is for students to understand that one word can have multiple different denotations. Students can engage in making these lists by creating videos that highlight the various denotations of particular words (see an example of such a video by NPR’s Radiolab [Radiolab, 2010] at www.radiolab.org/story/91974-bonus-video-words).
Evaluating Persuasive Rhetoric
Evaluating persuasive rhetoric involves determining a writer or speaker’s motive based on connotation, emphasis, tone, and figurative language, as well as judging whether these elements were used to mislead. To help students evaluate persuasive rhetoric, teachers can use the following process:
1.Identify and clearly articulate the speaker’s perspective.
2.Identify biased language in the speaker’s argument.
3.Understand appeals the speaker may be using.
4.Examine the motives behind the speaker’s perspective.
Here, we briefly describe each step of the process.
Articulate the Speaker’s Perspective
The best way for students to identify and articulate a speaker’s perspective is to try to restate the claim a speaker is presenting and list the grounds, or reasons, the speaker is using to defend his or her claim. For example, a speaker might say, “Smoking should not be banned in the United States because individuals should have the right to choose whether or not they smoke. Banning smoking violates the Constitution because it takes away that right. Measures have already been taken to protect populations that are hurt by smoking, such as children or nonsmokers who are exposed to secondhand smoke. Additionally, the government depends on taxes from cigarette sales for revenue, so banning cigarettes would actually hurt the country’s finances.”
Students
