I.2 (page 5), we use the dot notation system to identify standards from the CCSS. In ELA, dot notation indicates a standard using letters for its strand (Reading Literary Text [RL], Reading Informational Text [RI], Writing [W], Speaking and Listening [SL], or Language [L]), a number for its grade level (K–12), and a number for the specific standard to which it refers. For example, consider the notation W.3.1. The letter W indicates Writing, the number 3 indicates grade 3, and the number 1 indicates the first standard in the strand. Therefore, the notation refers to the first standard in the third-grade Writing strand. The mathematical practice standard related to argumentation referenced in table I.2 is denoted by Practice. MP3 (that is, the third standard for mathematical practice). Since the college and career readiness standards are not grade specific, they are not included in table I.2, although they were included in our analysis.
As illustrated by table I.2, the concept of argumentation spirals and builds through grades K–12.Some standards involve only one skill while others involve several. Furthermore, the skills associated with each standard develop from grade to grade, becoming more complex as students advance. For example, the skill of presenting and supporting claims looks different at each grade level. Kindergartners are expected to present opinions without any evidence, whereas first graders must give reasons—basic evidence—to support their claims. By third grade, students are expected to organize claims and evidence using linking words and phrases such as because or for example.
While we acknowledge that the process of identifying overarching argumentation skills is not an exact science, we strove to identify those argumentation skills from the CCSS that could be directly taught to students and practiced through games and activities in the classroom. This book presents strategies for teaching each argumentation skill and includes games that teachers can use to reinforce and help students practice each skill.
Direct Instruction in Argumentation
As shown previously, each of the skills in table I.1 (page 4) come directly from the CCSS, and teachers can use the games in this book to help students practice those skills. Note, however, that the games are designed for practicing argumentation skills. Before playing a game, students will need direct instruction in the skills associated with that game. Table I.3 (page 15) shows the argumentation skills associated with each game. Here, we provide guidelines and suggest instructional activities for teachers to use to teach each of the thirteen overarching argumentation skills.
Distinguishing Fact From Opinion
To understand the basic concept of an argument, students have to tell the difference between facts, which are statements that can be verified, and opinions, which express personal beliefs and may be accompanied by reasons for those beliefs. Teachers can use the following process to teach students to distinguish fact from opinion:
1.Explain what facts are.
2.Explain what opinions are.
3.Give examples of facts, opinions, and statements that do not clearly fall into either category.
This process is based on strategies described by Robert Marzano and Debra Pickering (1997). Here, we briefly describe each step of the process.
Table I.3: Argumentation Skills Associated With Games
Explain Facts
As stated previously, a fact is a statement that can be verified. For example, the statement “December is generally colder than August in the United States” is a fact. It can be confirmed or disproved by checking data on temperatures in the United States during each month. When teaching students about facts, explain that a fact is a statement that is verifiable and can be confirmed. If a fact is disproven, it is no longer a fact, but an incorrect statement. Emphasize that not all statements can be classified as either facts or opinions. For example, “Barack Obama was born in Kenya” is not a fact or an opinion because it can be disproven. Since there is evidence—a birth certificate specifying that he was born in Hawaii—to invalidate it, the statement is not a fact or opinion, but a false or incorrect statement. Finally, students need to understand what facts are and be able to confirm or disprove them so they can use facts to support their opinions.
Explain Opinions
Opinions are statements with which others may agree or disagree. They cannot be verified, but they can be supported with evidence. For example, the statement “Ronald Reagan was the best president” is an opinion. There are two points to emphasize when teaching students about opinions. First, opinions are often (although not always) accompanied by support or evidence; the person expressing an opinion can usually explain why he or she holds that opinion or belief. Second, statements do not always fit neatly into one category (opinion) or another (fact). Instead, they fall along a continuum, with facts that can be empirically verified at one end (for example, “Eight convicted felons were executed last year”) and statements that are pure opinion at the other (for example, “Capital punishment is wrong”). If students are having trouble classifying a statement as fact or opinion, it is likely because it is close to the middle of the continuum (for example, “Capital punishment deters crime”).
Give Examples
After teaching students the difference between facts and opinions, give them clear examples of each and discuss why they are facts or opinions. We present several examples of each in table I.4.
Table I.4: Examples of Fact and Opinion
To reinforce the idea that facts and opinions fall along a continuum—with pure facts at one end, pure opinions at the other, and some statements in between—also give students examples of statements that fall closer to the middle of the continuum. Students will likely find these statements more difficult to classify as facts or opinions. Examples of such statements include:
After presenting a number of examples of facts, opinions, and statements that fall in between, ask students to make statements or find them in the media. Discuss as a class where each statement falls on the continuum from fact to opinion or whether it belongs on the continuum at all.
Presenting and
