be overlooked because of its elusive nature…. But as recent research shows, inspiration can be activated, captured, and manipulated, and it has a major effect on important life outcomes” (Kaufman, 2011).
▸ “When performance in mathematics was predicted and prior achievement was controlled, motivation but not intelligence contributed to the prediction. Since mathematics performance is often thought to be highly cognitive in nature, the importance of motivation is most interesting. This result is especially important considering the potential malleability of motivation via educational processes. Compared to intelligence or more specific abilities, motivation may be more easily influenced by situational factors, such as salient classroom goals…. Thus, when teachers aim at improving students’ performance, enhancing their motivation might be as important as the conveyance of knowledge” (Steinmayr & Spinath, 2009, p. 88).
▸ “Some teachers, those we might call our great teachers, have a knack for moving students up … motivation levels…. Somehow these teachers are able to inspire students to work harder than they were initially inclined to work…. They are the ones who elicit such comments from students as
▸ I liked coming to class. I hated being absent.
▸ She turned us on to history and made it come alive.
▸ I never worked so hard in my life.
▸ I didn’t expect to like that class, but I really did.
We might reasonably conclude, therefore, that it is possible to inspire students to become more fully active learners. Clearly, some teachers manage to do it” (Harmin, 2006, pp. 4–5).
▸ “Research on student motivation seems to be central to research in learning and teaching contexts. Researchers interested in basic questions about how and why some students seem to learn and thrive in school contexts, while other students seem to struggle to develop the knowledge and cognitive resources to be successful academically, must consider the role of motivation” (Pintrich, 2003, p. 667).
▸ “In terms of education, it has become ever more apparent that … intrinsic motivation … leads to the types of outcomes that are beneficial both to individuals and to society” (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991, p. 342).
▸ “Do we as teachers sell inspiration short? We know what inspiration, or the lack of it, means in our own lives. Why do we let ourselves forget that our pupils are made as we are and that they are not always moved to their best efforts by our exhortation, our fervent persuasion, our nagging and scolding” (Spitzer, 1951, p. 136)?
Clearly, educators have long recognized the importance of motivation and inspiration. However, just how to evoke them in students is neither a simple nor obvious task.
Motivation and inspiration were strong themes in the book Awaken the Learner (Scott & Marzano, 2014), which posited that K–12 schools primarily focus on knowledge and skills to the detriment of their students. The current education system fails to take advantage of the vast array of available resources and strategies related to motivation and inspiration; this may be due to a systemic failure to recognize the positive influence that these strategies can have on students, both academically and personally. This book is designed to make some of these resources readily available to K–12 teachers by providing a comprehensive model of the nature of motivation and inspiration as well as specific strategies to elicit them in the classroom.
Hierarchy of Needs and Goals
A prevalent model that researchers use to explain human motivation involves the pursuit of specific needs and goals. That is, motivation and inspiration occur when we perceive that an activity or opportunity will help us meet a specific need or goal. Conversely, they do not occur when we perceive we will not be able to accomplish a specific need or goal. From this perspective, understanding human needs and goals provides a window to the inner workings of human motivation and inspiration.
Many discussions of needs and goals assume a hierarchic structure (Alderfer, 1969; Elliot & Church, 1997; McClelland, 1987; Vallerand, 1997, 2000; Vallerand & Ratelle, 2002). The model presented here is based on Abraham Maslow’s well-known hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1943, 1954). The hierarchy originally had five levels: (1) physiology, (2) safety, (3) belonging, (4) esteem within a community, and (5) self-actualization. Later versions (Koltko-Rivera, 2006; Maslow, 1969, 1979) included a sixth level: connection to something greater than self. The six levels of needs and goals are arranged into a hierarchy because each level is generally not available without fulfilling the needs related to the levels below it. Figure 1.1 depicts the hierarchic organization of all six levels of the model.
Figure 1.1: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and goals.
To better understand the hierarchic nature of the needs and goals in figure 1.1, consider the topmost levels, which involve connection to something greater than self and self-actualization. These levels can only be accessed with a solid foundation of the levels below them—that is, they only occur in individuals whose needs related to physiology, safety, belonging, and esteem within a community have been met.
It is important to note that while Maslow directly referenced needs and only alluded to goals, both terms make sense. We use both terms somewhat interchangeably, though it is probably more accurate to think of lower levels of the hierarchy as needs and the higher levels as goals. However, there is certainly no clear-cut dividing line between the two.
The extent to which students are motivated and inspired in a particular classroom is a function of the extent to which the classroom attends to the needs and goals in the hierarchy—particularly needs and goals related to the top two levels. Metaphorically, one might say that students in any given situation are constantly asking themselves the following questions.
▸ Level 1: “Am I physiologically comfortable in this situation?”
▸ Level 2: “Does this situation make me feel safe?”
▸ Level 3: “Does this situation make me feel like others accept me?”
▸ Level 4: “Does this situation make me feel like I am valued?”
▸ Level 5: “Does this situation make me feel as though I am living up to my potential?”
▸ Level 6: “Does this situation make me feel like I am a part of something important?”
To illustrate how this affects motivation, imagine students in a typical classroom. If they cannot answer “Yes” to the level 1 and level 2 questions, their thoughts will be focused on basic physical needs related to physiology and safety rather than what is occurring in class. If students cannot answer “Yes” to the level 3 and level 4 questions, it is probably accurate to say that the students might be able to attend to what is occurring in class but are probably disengaged to a significant degree. Schools tend to focus on issues related to the bottom four levels, which deal with foundational human needs. However, these levels do little to enhance students’ motivation and inspiration, which manifest in levels 5 and 6 of the hierarchy. This is depicted in figure 1.2.
As depicted in figure
