Defining Behavioral Skills
Up until this point, this book has spoken rather generally about behavioral skills. But what skills exactly does that phrase entail? The work of Camille Farrington, senior research associate at the University of Chicago Consortium on School Research, and her colleagues (2012) influenced my definition of behavioral skills. Farrington et al.’s (2012) research-based framework describes six interrelated categories of behavior—(1) precognitive self-regulation, (2) mindsets, (3) social skills, (4) learning strategies, (5) perseverance, and (6) academic behaviors—all of which interact and influence student learning (academic performance). Figure I.2 shows the interconnectedness of these categories. Please note that the arrows flow in both directions. While positive mindsets foundationally impact positive social skills and learning strategies, which foundationally impact positive perseverance, which foundationally impacts positive academic behaviors and performance, influences can travel in the opposite direction. For example, difficulties with employing learning strategies can negatively impact a student’s mindset.
Source: Adapted from Farrington et al., 2012.
Figure I.2: Interrelated categories of behavior.
Farrington et al.’s (2012) categories fall under the umbrella of noncognitive factors. I prefer to think of them as metacognitive skills because everything in the brain is cognitive. The behaviors commonly associated with metacognitive skills include everything from attention and focus to grit and perseverance to empathy and engagement. Far from being noncognitive, these behaviors are considered part of the brain’s executive functioning (Duckworth & Carlson, 2013; Dweck, Walton, & Cohen, 2014; Martens & Meller, 1990; Tough, 2012, 2016). Executive functions are processes that have to do with managing oneself (for example, emotions, thinking, and schedules) and one’s resources (for example, notes, supports, and environments) in order to be successful. The term, in many ways, captures the preceding categories and may be considered as synonymous with the behavioral skills that we describe in the book and that students need to learn to succeed in school, college, career, and life. Each of Farrington et al.’s (2012) six categories contains what this book defines under the broad label of behavioral skills. Let’s define the behaviors within each category individually.
1. Precognitive self-regulation: Students can attain, maintain, regulate, and change their level of arousal for a task or situation. Educators may observe that students have difficulty coping emotionally and may determine that these difficulties are impacted by poor health, nutrition, and sleep; or lack of exercise; or sensitivity to sensory inputs; or an ability to process inputs. These abilities are dependent on, and related to, physiological and safety needs as defined within Maslow’s (1943, 1954) five-tiered theory of motivation.
2. Mindsets: Students feel a sense of belonging, belief, and engagement. Affirmative responses to the following statements represent a positive, growth mindset—
■ “I belong in this academic community.” Educators know that students are connected to someone and something within the school environment.
■ “My ability and competence grow with my effort.” Educators observe that students believe that they can improve with effort; that smart is something that you become, not something that you are.
■ “I can succeed at this.” Educators know that success breeds success and that meeting students where they are and nudging them toward greater levels of proficiency are key; students draw on a sense of self-efficacy to persist in learning.
■ “This work has value for me.” Educators know that motivation is dependent on the relevance that students see in classrooms; students have opportunities to explore passions, they see the purpose in learning, and they experience personalized supports and opportunities for personalized paths.
3. Social skills: Students have respectful interactions with others and demonstrate respect for themselves. Educators observe students cooperating and collaborating in socially appropriate ways and behaving with empathy for others in both academic and social circumstances.
4. Learning strategies: Students can regulate, monitor, and reflect on their learning. Educators see students employing effective study and organizational skills, behaving metacognitively, tracking their own progress, and responding appropriately when faced with a task, whether the task is completing an in-class assignment, completing a long-term project, or preparing for a test. Learning strategies can be thought of as cognitive self-regulation: students regulate the level of their learning frequently and make the necessary adjustments.
5. Perseverance: Students maintain effort and adapt to setbacks; they exercise self-discipline and self-control; they delay gratification; and they advocate for one’s needs. Educators observe that students stick with tasks, typically because they are drawing on positive mindsets, social skills, and learning strategies.
6. Academic behaviors: Students are physically, emotionally, and cognitively present and attentive within learning and learning environments. Educators note that students consistently complete tasks of high quality; that they actively participate in learning; and that they appear motivated to learn, succeed, and grow. Again, educators’ observations of academic behaviors typically draw on and depend on positive mindsets, social skills, learning strategies, and perseverance, the companion behavioral skills in figure I.2 (page 7).
Defining behavioral skills within the context of Farrington et al.’s (2012) framework is helpful because the framework then becomes an action plan. We can operationalize the research, putting the best thinking of these experts into action and proactively supporting students in developing skills when difficulties exist. For example, let’s say a student is labeled as unmotivated—he or she doesn’t seem to care about school or his or her grades, or his or her future. This is perhaps the most common concern that educators identify, particularly as students get older. A lack of motivation would appear as a deficit in the category of academic behaviors within the framework. While we will describe how we can teach students to behave in more motivated ways, the sequential nature of the framework reveals that there are predictable antecedents to poor academic behaviors, or more specifically, a lack of motivation.
Considering the framework from top to bottom, a student who is hungry, is tired, has difficulties modulating emotions, or has some combination of these, may appear unmotivated, and more immediately, may not display positive, growth mindsets. A student without positive, growth mindsets may appear unmotivated, and more immediately, may not display positive social skills. A lack of social skills makes cooperating and collaborating with adults and students a challenge. Additionally, a student without positive, growth mindsets may not see the point or the payoff in practicing and improving learning strategies. A student without productive learning strategies may appear unmotivated, and more immediately, may not regularly persevere. Finally, a student who does not persevere will likely appear unmotivated. Essentially, the point of these examples is to illustrate that there are reasons—explanations, causes, antecedents—to a student’s lack of motivation. When we as educators consider behavioral skills within the context of Farrington et al.’s (2012) framework, we can identify these reasons and do something about it. As John Seita (2014), associate professor of social work at Michigan State University, says, “Behavior is a form of communication providing clues about what is missing in a young person’s life” (p. 29).
Identifying the Importance of Behavioral Skills
