implementing the step and then asks the partner who is doing the step correctly to demonstrate and explain it to the other student.
Element 7: Processing Content
During breaks in the presentation of content, an effective teacher engages students in actively processing new information. Research has shown that some processing macrostrategies (such as reciprocal teaching) increase student achievement (Rosenshine & Meister, 1994). Processing macrostrategies combine several individual research-based strategies (such as summarizing, questioning, or predicting) to help students actively process information (Marzano, 2007).
There are eight strategies within this element.
1. Perspective analysis
2. Thinking hats
3. Collaborative processing
4. Jigsaw cooperative learning
5. Reciprocal teaching
6. Concept attainment
7. Think-pair-share
8. Scripted cooperative dyads
The following sections will explore each strategy to provide you with guidelines to effectively implement this element. Read through each before creating a plan for your classroom. Teachers may use the strategies individually or in combination. Remember, these are not merely activities to be checked off; they are methods of creating a practice that combines your art with the science of processing content. Reflect on your use of each strategy by filling out the “Strategy Reflection Log” on page 331.
Perspective Analysis
This strategy was originally developed by Robert J. Marzano (1992) in A Different Kind of Classroom: Teaching With Dimensions of Learning. The teacher asks students to consider multiple perspectives on new knowledge using perspective analysis. Topics might include controversial political topics, school- and community-related issues, or historical perspectives, to name a few. This strategy involves five steps, each with a corresponding question.
1. Identify your own position on a controversial topic: What do I believe about this?
2. Determine the reasoning behind your position: Why do I believe that?
3. Identify an opposing position: What is another way of looking at this?
4. Describe the reasoning behind the opposing position: Why might someone else hold a different opinion?
5. When you are finished, summarize what you have learned: What have I learned?
Students then consider a different position on the topic and the reasoning behind it.
Thinking Hats
Edward de Bono (1999) originally developed this strategy in Six Thinking Hats. The teacher asks students to process new information by imagining themselves wearing any one of six different-colored thinking hats. Students should use multiple hats when examining one chunk of new content as a way of developing a more thorough understanding of the information. Depending on the hat they wear, students look at new knowledge in a slightly different way, as follows.
1. White hat (neutral and objective perspectives): When wearing the white hat, students examine facts and figures related to the new information without drawing conclusions or interpreting them.
2. Red hat (emotional perspectives): When wearing the red hat, students express how they feel about the new information but should still refrain from judging either the topic or their feelings.
3. Black hat (cautious or careful perspectives): When wearing the black hat, students look for weaknesses or risks that stem from the new information. (Some teachers have expressed concern about using the color black for this hat. If students might be offended, the teacher should use a different color hat for these perspectives.)
4. Yellow hat (optimistic perspectives): When wearing the yellow hat, students look for positive and valuable aspects of the new information.
5. Green hat (creative perspectives): When wearing the green hat, students generate new ideas or create novel solutions to problems using the new information.
6. Blue hat (organizational perspectives): When wearing the blue hat, students reflect on their thinking processes and decide what perspectives they would like to take (in other words, what hats they would like to put on) as they interact with new information.
Figure 3.2 outlines the six thinking hat perspectives.
Collaborative Processing
The teacher asks students to meet in small groups to summarize the information just presented, ask clarifying questions, and make predictions about upcoming information. After allowing the students to interact in small groups, the teacher can lead the whole class in a discussion of their summaries, questions, and predictions.
Since collaborative processing requires students to interact with peers, accurately summarize content, predict content, and clarify challenging information, students’ ability to comfortably use all elements of the collaborative processing strategy may need to develop over time. Use figure 3.3 to track students’ use of the collaborative processing strategy. If students seem stuck at the beginning or developing stages, evaluate which behaviors need to be strengthened through modeling, coaching, or instruction.
Jigsaw Cooperative Learning
The teacher organizes students in teams of equal size (for example, five members) and the content into as many categories as there are team members (for example, five categories). Once students are in their groups, the teacher assigns each student a topic about which he or she will become an “expert.” Once students each have their expert topic, groups disband and students with the same expert topic meet together in expert groups to investigate the topic, share their findings, ask questions of each other and the teacher, and discuss their ideas. After each student has become an expert on his or her topic, the original groups re-form and students each present their expert knowledge to the other members of the group. Other group members can ask questions of the expert or the teacher as they learn the new information.
Source: Marzano Research, 2016.
Figure 3.2: Thinking hats.
Figure 3.3: Recognizing students’ use of the collaborative processing strategy.
Consider the following tips when implementing jigsaw cooperative learning activities.
• Plan in advance which topics each group will be responsible for and which students will be grouped together.
• Before students begin researching their topics, ask them to consider what they already know about their topic. As they gather information, they should make connections between
