and school systems. Many of them are effective in supporting new initiatives and ongoing teaching and learning applications. These programs are as diverse as their schools, but three foundational elements are common to many strong programs that keep teaching and learning sharp and professionals on the cutting edge: (1) a well-defined model of instruction, (2) universal coaching, and (3) the coaching cycle.
In the 1980s, I moved to an island and was given a fourteen-foot wooden sailboat. I had never been in a sailboat. My boat was in terrible condition—it had spent some time on the ocean floor and had been sitting on a broken trailer for a few years after that. I put on a new deck and asked a high school student where the lines went (my first coach). I read a book about sailing to gain background knowledge. Ready to go? Not quite. I asked for advice and went underway with a friend who sailed (second coach). I took the advice and then paddled upwind for half a mile and sailed home (yeah!). I crewed on a racing sloop—though the captain (third coach) may have thought I was more like deck hardware than a mate. Then I sailed on my boat with a friend who had been sailing for years (my fourth coach). I learned a lot and executive transfer occurred. With knowledge, practice, and training and support from my various coaches, I was able to become a competent sailor. More than once I spent a hard day as a principal and then sailed across Fishers Island Sound, up the Mystic River, got an ice cream, and sailed home as the sun was setting. Heaven!
Model of Instruction
A model of instruction defines the strategies, skills, attributes, curricular applications, and the like that teachers are supposed to be using in preparation for instruction, during instruction, and with colleagues to instill learning in students. As such, it provides a comprehensive definition of what good teaching and learning look like so that all teachers and administrators have the same definition against which to assess teacher competence and growth. Having a model of instruction is an essential foundation for improvement and coaching (Marzano & Simms, 2013; Marzano et al., 2014).
From a coaching standpoint, the model indicates the specific elements and strategies that define effective teaching and learning. Teachers or observers can determine from the model which skills a teacher is good at and already using, as well as those that are absent from his teaching and might bring about a stronger learning environment if implemented. One of the strengths of a model of instruction is that it provides the teacher and coach an identical foundation from which to work. They can measure performance in a given strategy and make a plan for improvement. They can also measure success as the teacher’s repertoire gains depth and breadth.
Schools may develop their own models of instruction or use a pre-existing one. Marzano’s (2007, 2017) The New Art and Science of Teaching model is a good example of an available model of instruction. The protocol consists of forty-three elements (see the appendix, page 108), which are supported by over three hundred strategies that teachers can use in their instructional practices. Together, these elements and strategies comprise a comprehensive definition of what teachers (and learners) can do to instill learning. Marzano and his colleagues have described the model and its implementation in Becoming a Reflective Teacher (Marzano, 2012), Coaching Classroom Instruction (Marzano & Simms, 2013), The New Art and Science of Teaching (Marzano, 2017), and the Marzano Compendium of Instructional Strategies (Marzano Resources, 2016b). Danielson (2013) also defined a comprehensive model in The Framework for Teaching that consists of four domains and twenty-one elements, each with associated rubrics, attributes, and examples.
Both Marzano and Danielson divided their models into domains and included lists of elements and strategies with associated rubrics. The strength is the inclusion of the rubric. The teacher and the coach can compare what occurs in the classroom with the descriptions in the rubrics. If they desire a change in a strategy, they can establish and implement a plan. As time and practice allow, the teacher can improve; he or she can then consult the rubric a second time to measure growth and celebrate change.
Evaluation systems can also function as models of instruction. Every district’s evaluation documents define the elements, strategies, and skills that supervisors assess when evaluating teachers. These documents, then, are the de facto model of instruction. Teachers know what the district thinks is great teaching by referring to the evaluation documents. If the teacher rates highly on the criteria set forth in the evaluation documents, then she is a great teacher (according to the district). Coaches and their clients can use a review of the criteria set forth in the evaluation documents as a starting point. As with explicit models of instruction, schools can create their own evaluation documents or choose from existing ones. James Stronge (2018) and others have created evaluation tools that many districts use as their models of instruction. Educators can use these tools to assess performance before and after coaching; however, some evaluation tools are measurement-oriented and may require some modification to focus on growth (Marzano et al., 2014).
Note that, while this book primarily draws examples from Marzano’s work (Marzano, 2007, 2012, 2017; Marzano & Simms, 2013; Marzano Resources, 2016b), the concepts covered apply to all models of instruction. Schools using Danielson (2013), Stronge (2018), a district-produced model of instruction, or any other can all employ coaching with equal success. Readers using other models need simply insert elements from that model to completely understand the points made.
Universal Coaching
Coaching programs in schools should always include all teachers. Universal coaching simply means that all teachers are coached: not just new teachers, not just weak teachers, not just some teachers, all teachers. Having a coach work only with new teachers, or weak teachers, or any subset of the faculty sends the message that some teachers are fine as is and don’t need to change, while other teachers need to fix their instructional practices. It creates a division: we don’t need to improve as a faculty or as a profession, just some of you do. That is the wrong message every time.
Making coaching universal sends the message that the faculty is a group of professionals working together in a school or district. Staff can improve their professional practice, and, working together, they will. Universal coaching engenders the mindset that we all strive to be the best that we can be and will work to do even better tomorrow.
If coaching every teacher seems too expensive or too intrusive, we might respond, Which teachers should be expected to improve and which should not? All teachers, even strong or experienced teachers, can get better and expand their abilities. Concerns about limited resources are easily remedied through adjustments to a school’s coaching program. For example, the peer coaching model (which will be discussed in chapter 5, page 83) requires little expense, can be supported by an administrator or a coach, and provides a vehicle for every teacher to coach and be coached simultaneously. While universal coaching reduces the coach-to-teacher ratio, the improved sense of community and positive attitude about improvement more than make up for it.
The Coaching Cycle
The final essential element of a strong coaching program is the use of the coaching cycle. This is a cycle of events between a teacher and a coach which leads to significant and sustained change. Many years of coaching experience inform this cycle—trial and error, reading, and discussions of success and failure with colleagues and clients. The cycle has five steps.
1. Establishing a baseline of the teacher’s current instructional practice through observation or reflection
2. Setting a goal for change by comparing the baseline with established norms within the school and in the literature
3. Planning to implement the change in lessons and the classroom
4. Practicing the new skill several times in the classroom
5.
