first suggested by Zeev Sternhell. Scholar Roger Eatwell further notes that fascism relies on a “spectral-syncretic” quality, joining positions not typically understood as commensurate, such as elements of liberalism and state control. See Zeev Sternhell, The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Roger Eatwell, “Towards a New Model of Generic Fascism,” in Griffin and Feldman, eds., Fascism (New York: London, 2004), 1:249.
5 Stephen D. Shenfield, Russian Fascism: Traditions, Tendencies, Movements (London: ME Sharpe, 2001), 35 & 180.
6 See George Michael, Willis Carto and the American Far Right (Gainsville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2008), 144–56.
7 While it is true that Mussolini and Hitler both turned to parliamentary strategy, they did so explicitly to dismantle liberal parliamentarism, and although Nazi leader Gregor Strasser proposed a “broad front” (Querfront) between military, reactionary, neoconservative, and Nazi groups, his strategy was rejected by other Nazi leaders as overly compromised.
8 A. James Gregor, “Roger Griffin, Social Science, ‘Fascism,’ and the ‘Extreme Right,’” in Roger Griffin, Werner Loh, and Andreas Umland, eds., Fascism Past and Present, West and East: An International Debate on Concepts and Cases in the Comparative Study of the Extreme Right (Stuttgart: ibidem Press, 2006), 115–22.
9 See especially Ernst Nolte, The Three Faces of Fascism: Action Francaise, Italian Fascism, National Socialism, trans. Leila Vennewitz (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966); Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism (Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, 1985).
10 See Theodor Adorno et al., The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper, 1950); Wilhelm Reich, The Mass Psychology of Fascism (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1970), xiii; Erich Fromm, Escape from Freedom (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1969).
11 See Stanley G. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914–1945 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995).
12 Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (New York: Routledge, 1994), 26.
13 David Renton, Fascism: Theory and Practice (London: Pluto Press, 1999).
14 Michel Foucault, “Preface,” in Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983), xii.
15 See Don Hamerquist and J. Sakai, Confronting Fascism: Discussion Documents for a Militant Movement (Montreal/Chicago: Kersplebedeb, Chicago Anti-Racist Action, 2002).
16 These would be Jacques Doriot, Georges Valois, and Marcel Déat, respectively. I leave out Charles Maurras and François de La Rocque, not because I disagree that they were fascists, but because there is enough debate over the matter as to render their political leadership somewhat tenuous, comparatively speaking. See Robert Soucy’s works, French Fascism: The First Wave, 1924–1933 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986) and French Fascism: The Second Wave, 1933–1939 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997).
17 This is also observed in Jeffrey M. Bale, “The ‘Black’ Terrorist International: Neo-Fascist Paramilitary Networks and the ‘Strategy of Tension’ in Italy, 1968–1974” (PhD diss., University of California–Berkeley, 1994), 9; and Griffin, The Nature of Fascism, 30–32.
18 Jeffrey M. Bale, “Fascism and Neo-Fascism: Ideology and ‘Groupuscularity,’” in Griffin, Loh, and Umland, eds., Fascism Past and Present, West and East, 78.
19 Barbara Ehrenreich, “What Happened to the White Working Class?,” Nation, December 1, 2015, https://www.thenation.com/article/what-happened-to-the-white-working-class/.
20 In a study of the hyperlinks and keywords shared among networks in Europe and the United States, analysts found a “rising connectivity from 2006 to 2011” to the extent that the white supremacist movement and the neo-Nazi organizations of the United States that were distinct networks in 2006 had consolidated into a single cluster over five years. See Ralf Wiederer, “Mapping the Right-Wing Extremist Movement on the Internet—Structural Patterns 2006–2011,” in In the Tracks of Breivik: Far Right Networks in Northern and Eastern Europe, eds. Mats Deland, Michael Minkenberg, and Christin Mays (Berlin: LIT Verlag, 2014), 43.
21 Angelique Chrisafis, “French Elections: Front National Makes No Gains in Final Round,” Guardian, December 14, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/13/front-national-fails-to-win-control-of-target-regions-amid-tactical-voting.
22 Elizabeth Schumacher, “Report: Five Times More Attacks on Refugee Homes in Germany in 2015,” Deutsche Welle, January 29, 2016, http://www.dw.com/en/report-five-times-more-attacks-on-refugee-homes-in-germany-in-2015/a-19011109.
23 There were 1,005 reported attacks in 2015, 217 attacks in January and February 2016. See “Die Karte der Schande,” Bild, February 22, 2016, http://www.bild.de/news/inland/fluechtlingskrise-in-deutschland/die-karte-der-schande-44653590.bild.html.
24 Michelle Mark, “Anti-Muslim Hate Crimes Have Spiked After Every Major Terrorist Attack: After Paris, Muslims Speak Out Against Islamophobia,” International Business Times, November 18, 2015, http://www.ibtimes.com/anti-muslim-hate-crimes-have-spiked-after-every-major-terrorist-attack-after-paris-2190150; Eric Lichtblau, “Crimes Against Muslim Americans and Mosques Rise Sharply,” New York Times December 17, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/18/us/politics/crimes-against-muslim-americans-and-mosques-rise-sharply.html.
25 Kristina Rizga, “The Chilling Rise of Islamophobia in Our Schools,” Mother Jones, January 26, 2016, http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2016/01/bullying-islamophobia-in-american-schools.
26 Mark Potok, “The Year of Hate and Extremism,” Intelligence Report (online edition), Southern Poverty Law Center’s website, February 17, 2016, https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2015/year-hate-and-extremism-0; CBS/AP, “FBI: Hate crimes against Muslims up by 67 percent in 2015,” CBSnews.org, November 14, 2016, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/fbi-hate-crimes-against-muslims-up-67-percent-2015/.
