House of Commons, London 1949, pp. 140, 147–8, 302.
20. C. Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century, London 1937, pp. 288–90.
21. C. G. Cruickshank, Elizabeth’s Army, Oxford 1966, pp. 12–13, 19–20, 24–30, 51–3, 285.
22. Cruickshank has suggested that the absence of an adult male sovereign, to command field troops in person, for nearly 60 years after Henry VIII, may have contributed to the failure of a regular army to emerge in this epoch: Army Royal, Oxford 1969, p. 189.
23. ‘Ireland is the last ex filiis Europae, which hath been reclaimed from desolation and a desert (in many parts), to population and plantation; and from savage and barbarous customs, to humanity and civility.’ The Works of Francis Bacon, London 1711, Vol. IV, p. 280. For further examples of the same colonial sentiments, see pp. 442–8. Bacon, like all his contemporaries, was keenly aware of the material profits to be derived from England’s civilizing mission in Ireland: ‘This I will say confidently, that if God bless this kingdom with peace and justice, no usurer is so sure in seventeen years space to double his principal, and interest upon interest, as that kingdom is within the same time to double the stock both of wealth and people. . . . It is not easy, no not upon the continent, to find such confluence of commodities, if the hand of man did join with the hand of nature.’ pp. 280, 444. Note the clarity of the conception of Ireland as an alternative outlet for expansion to the continent.
24. For the situation by the early 16th century, see M. MacCurtain, Tudor and Stuart Ireland, Dublin 1972, pp. 1–5, 18, 39–41.
25. For some glimpses of the tactics used to reduce the Irish to submission, see C. Falls, Elizabeth’s Irish Wars, London 1950, pp. 326–9, 341, 343, 345. The English Fury in Ireland was probably just as lethal as the Spanish Fury in the Netherlands: in fact, there is little sign that it was ever restrained by the considerations which, for example, prevented Spain from destroying the Dutch dikes – a measure rejected as genocidal by Philip II’s government: compare Parker, The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, pp. 134–5.
26. For this development, see Cipolla, Guns and Sails in the Early Phase of European Expansion, pp. 78–81; M. Lewis, The Spanish Armada, London 1960, pp. 61–80, who claims a perhaps doubtful English priority in it.
27. G. J. Marcus, A Naval History of England, I, The Formative Centuries London 1961, p. 30.
28. Garrett Mattingly, The Defeat of the Spanish Armada, London 1959, p. 175.
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