comparison to others, Abyssinians were more in number in Makkah as settlers. Most of them were slaves. Of them, the most prominent is the Prophet’s earliest follower, Bilāl ibn Rabāḥ, whose illustrious personality is held dear by every Muslim. His father Rabāḥ and his mother Ḥamāmah were brought to Makkah as slaves. Bilāl and some of his brothers and one sister were born there. They were thus included among Banū Jumaḥ. We would discuss later some other Makkans of Abyssinian descent.26
Among early Muslims Ṣuhayb in referred to as a Roman. Some reports suggest that he was an Arab.27 The Prophet’s comment on his Roman descent is significant. ʿAddās was the slave of the Quraysh chiefs – ʿUtbah and Shaybah and hailed from Ninevah. He was settled in Makkah as a slave and was integrated well with Makkans.28 The Quraysh alleged that someone composed the Qur’ān for the Prophet (peace be upon him). According to the Qur’ān, they gave credit for this to some non-Arabs. Exegetes have identified many on this count such as Yāsir, the slave of al-ʿAlā’ ibn al-Ḥadramī, Jābir, the slave of ʿĀmir ibn Rabīʿah and ʿAddās, the slave of ʿUtbah and Shaybah. All three were non-Arabs.29 There were other non-Arabs in Makkan society. Although they were few and unimportant, their presence did have its bearing on the local traditions, culture and religious life.
Multiplicity of Faith in Makkan Society
The traditional historians and biographers of the Prophet (peace be upon him) merely state that the religious life in Makkah was synonymous with idolatry. Some make the additional observations that the Arab polytheists, especially the Makkan Quraysh were adherents of Abrahamic faith, which they had corrupted beyond recognition owing to their innovations, accretion and deviation. In terms of ideology, faith, rituals and practices they had nothing in common with the original faith. Their thought had degenerated into sheer polytheism. Yet these writers do not analyze their faith and practices. As to the presence of other faiths in Makkah, they pass in silence over it.
Polytheism, unlike monotheism, is not a monolithic, single-dimensional entity. It has numerous varieties. It divides polytheists into several religious groups. With polytheism as the faith a society cannot achieve integration or unity. Along with its divisions and sub-divisions it disintegrates into numerous blocks. Idolatry was the main faith of Arabs and of Makkans. However, they worshipped different idols. Each tribe and family had its own idol and these idols were one another’s rivals. All members of a tribe or family were not obliged to worship a single deity. They could turn to any idol. Rather, it was their practice. This pantheon of idols had affected Makkan society and generated many reactions.30
Jews and Christians lived in the vicinity of the Quraysh and Makkans held them in awe. Jewish and Christian thought had crept into their faith, rather influenced it. Arabs believed in their superiority in matters of faith. The Arab proximity with Persia had made them thoroughly familiar with Magian thought and practices, though this influence was not wide-spread in Makkah. More importantly, atheism featured in Makkah.31
Idolatry in Makkah – A Manifestation of Polytheism
Hubal was the national idol installed at the roof of the Kaʿbah. Around it, however, there were three hundred and sixty idols. Each of these was worshipped on a day of the year. Then there were pictures on the walls of the Kaʿbah. As a result of this abundance of idols and pictures, polytheism was rooted deep in Makkah. Non-Quraysh Arabs who lived in Makkah had their own national idols. Owing to their stay in Makkah, however, they had developed attachment to the Quraysh idols, which had become part of their psyche. Idols of the adjoining area too had their influence on them. Of them, the most important ones were al-Lāt, Manāt and al-ʿUzzā, which are mentioned in the Qur’ān with reference to the socio-religious life of Makkah and Quraysh. Asāf and Nā’ilah were the idols of Banū Jurhum and al-Lāt of the Thaqīf of Ṭā’if. Al-ʿUzzā, the common idol of the Quraysh and Kinānah was installed at Nakhlah. Manāt was worshipped by the Arab tribes – al-Aws and al-Khazraj. Such devotion to a large number of idols had corrupted their religious outlook.32
All this had its impact on their religious thought pattern. They had turned into idolaters when ʿAmr ibn Luḥayy Khuzāʿī had imported idols for them. As and when they came across a beautiful stone, they would start worshipping it. By the same token, they would throw away these when they felt tired of these. Reports indicate that they had grown so non-serious on this count that during a journey they carried idols made of flour for being light to carry. They would even devour these when they grew hungry. For them these were without any substance. At most they regarded these as the means to get closer to God. Or they looked upon these as the agents to help them in need, as for example, for rainfall and other needs. ʿAmr ibn Luḥayy had brought for them from Syria the idol Hubal. Visitors to Makkah carried stones of the town for using these as idols back home. Idolatry was, no doubt, their ritual yet it had not crept into their thought pattern or national psyche.33
Their non-serious attitude towards idolatry stemmed from their allegiance to the Abrahamic faith. Notwithstanding the corruption in their faith, the spirit of their original faith sustained them. Its remnants were still there in their beliefs and practices. They were, no doubt, polytheists who invoked idols yet they entertained the notion of God being the Lord of the worlds. They did believe in One God but they were guilty of associating others with Him. The Qur’ān cites many instances of this corruption in their faith. These stand out as incontrovertible historical facts.34
The Makkans believed in some articles of the Abrahamic faith and practised the same, though their innovations had changed the faith altogether. They had the concept of prayer and offered the same once or twice a day, though in a totally changed form. According to Balādhurī, the Prophet (peace be upon him) used to visit the Kaʿbah early in the day and offered ḍuḥā (mid-morning) prayer there. The Quraysh did not dismiss this prayer.35 It appears from the Qur’ān and other bits of evidence that their prayer comprised postures such as standing, bowing and prostrating.36 They believed also in the obligation of fasting and observed it as well. The Makkans and the Quraysh fasted on the 10th of Muḥarram, for it constituted thanksgiving for the beginning of creation by God. They fasted as a token of gratitude for the advent of Prophet Adam and for divine bounties.37 Spending in God’s way, the underlying spirit of charity and zakāh was the trait of Arabs in general and of Makkans in particular. It was a synonym for generosity. The Makkans were fully familiar with the practices of pilgrimage and lesser pilgrimage and practised the same. Throughout the year they would perform ʿumrah and pilgrimage only on the appointed days. Amid other norms of the Abrahamic faith they were aware of the regard for the Kaʿbah and considered its custodianship as a privilege. Their association with pilgrimage, its rituals and the places linked with it was emotional, ideological, religious, psychological and spiritual. Both the Quraysh and Kinānah chanted the Oneness of God, affirming that He is without any partner. They had, no doubt, introduced some practices in pilgrimage which betrayed their national pride and honour. The alliance of the Quraysh, Kinānah and Khuzāʿah was known as Ḥims. They went around the Kaʿbah in a naked state and did not stay at ʿArafāt, dismissing it as the practice of the commoners.38
The Qurayshī reaction to their ancestral faith
The point that features in Arab traditions and poetry and which merits the attention of analysts, is that it was a Makkan who had distorted the Abrahamic faith. He was a Khuzāʿī by descent and hence a non-Quraysh. After the expulsion of Banū Khuzāʿah from Makkah, a reaction against their faith was inevitable. The Quraysh Arabs and Makkans were, no doubt, practitioners of idolatry yet they had not drifted completely from their ancestral faith. Idolatry was common. So was the attachment to idols. Yet the community leaders were aware of the roots of polytheism. They were swayed by customs of the day. Their sound psyche and conscience directed them to the Abrahamic faith and caused revulsion against the conventional faith. This spiritual longing, intellectual yearning and emotional urge impelled them to revert to their original faith. This was not restricted
