Ras Shamra text
Syria Syria: Revue d’art oriental et d’archéologie
TA Tel Aviv
Tarb Tarbiz
TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. 14 vols. Edited by G. J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren. Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley et al. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974–2004
UT Ugaritic text
UT C. H. Gordon. Ugaritic Textbook. Analecta Orientalia 38. Rome: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1965
VAB Vorderasiatische Bibliothek. 7 vols. Leipzig, 1907–1916
VT Vetus Testamentum
Introduction
Saul, Son of Kish, from the tribe of Benjamin, was the first king of Israel (1029–1005 BCE). His life was full of drama and tribulations, and ended tragically. The books of Samuel and Chronicles are the main sources of information about Saul. The biblical prophetic books and Psalms barely mention him, and sometimes even ignore him as they do in Pss 78:59–72; 89:20–39. Saul’s life is related mainly in 1 Samuel 9–15; the text is neither homogeneous nor cohesive, and evidently derived from earlier sources. These sources tend to describe Saul’s reign as an introduction to the career of David, and a source that modifies the part played by Samuel. According to the Talmud, Samuel wrote the book that bears his name, and he wrote Judges and Ruth as well. The Talmud asks: “But it is written in it, Now Samuel was dead?—It was completed by Gad the seer and Nathan the Prophet.”1 The two books of Samuel were originally one book in the Hebrew canon. They have been divided in Hebrew manuscripts and printed editions since 1448. The death of Saul is a logical ending to First Samuel. Second Samuel continues with the story of David; but David’s story extends into the first two chapters of 1 Kings.
In modern scholarship, 1 Samuel is part of the so-called Deuteronomistic History. This includes the books of Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, 1–2 Samuel, and 1–2 Kings. These books tell the history of Israel from the time of Moses to the destruction of the kingdom of Judah in 586 BCE. They are believed to comprise a single work because they share the elements of structure, writing style, and theological outlook. The books examine the history of Israel according to the laws set forth in Deuteronomy. The main doctrines of Deuteronomy are: centralized worship in Jerusalem, obedience to the Deuteronomistic law, and abstinence from apostasy. Victory and defeat accordingly result from obedience or disobedience to the law. Hence it is more theological history than pure history. However, examination of the book of Samuel reveals a limited influence of the Deuteronomistic redaction. According to McCarter, the most striking aspect of the Deuteronomistic redaction of the books of Samuel is its sparseness.2 The strict Deuteronomistic structure that is found in the books of Judges and Kings is not evident in Samuel.
The book of Samuel is a blend of historiography, literary poetics, and ethical and theological perceptions. There is little agreement among scholars about the original formation of the material in Samuel.3 Analysis of the book points to the presence of three major blocks. The first block (chapters 1–7) tells the story of the prophet Samuel, who is the dominant figure. Chapter 8 is transitional and introduces the monarchy. The second block (chapters 9–15) tells the “Story of Saul” where Saul is the protagonist. The third block (chapters 16–31) contains the “Story of Saul and David,” and describes the feuds between the two rivals. We will show that an author sympathetic to David at the time, probably wrote the third block when David needed to justify his claim to the throne in response to claims of Saul’s family.
The book of Samuel portrays Saul as a colorful personality with excesses—the classical hero of a tragedy. Moreover, Saul’s excellent virtues qualified him for the monarchy. He had courage and military power, and he was chosen to reign.4 His prowess was evident in his first battle against the Ammonites. He went with his sons to his last battle against the Philistines, even when he knew the outcome of the war. He fell on his sword, and died on the battlefield as befits a classical hero. Saul was also modest and shy and it is not surprising that he rebuked Samuel for making him king. Later, when people were looking for him he was not found, since he was hiding among the equipment.
The first detail we learn about Saul is that he was unusually handsome.5 We also read that he was shy and modest implying that he tried to humble himself. Evidently, there is a contradiction between his physical description and his behavior, which points to his irreconcilable character. Only later, after the spirit of God seizes him, will he appear to the people with resolved enthusiasm and with boldness.
The rabbis emphasized Saul’s modesty, according to Midrash Tanhuma the casting of lots was initiated because Saul doubted whether he was worthy to be elected.6 The Midrash puts words in Saul’s mouth: “I am not worthy of kingship.” They identified the man of Benjamin who came to Shiloh from the battlefield (1 Sam 4:12) with Saul: “R. Levi said: sixty miles Saul marched on the same day. He was in the battle line, and (there he) heard that the tablets (of the law) were carried off. He went and snatched them from Goliath’s hand, and (then) he came (to Shilo).”7 This points to Saul’s bravery and to the fact that he fought for God long before he was chosen to be king. The Midrash also stresses Saul’s obedience to Jewish Law (halakha) since he ordered that sacrificial commandments and laws be kept (1 Sam 14:32–35).8
The sages, who were intrigued by his personality, changed their interpretation concerning his sin in the war against Amalek so that the sin is portrayed favorably. Therefore, Saul refused to see the women, children, and cattle as sinners who deserved death. Thus, “A bat kol (Heavenly voice) emanated and said to him: ‘Do not be overly righteous.’”9 Moreover, the sages thought so highly of Saul that they listed him among their eight princes: Jesse (the father of king David); Saul himself; the prophets Samuel, Elijah, Amos, and Zephaniah; the righteous King Zedekiah; and the Messiah.10
In contrast to the positive portrayal of Saul in the Bible and the midrashim, there are passages which portray him differently: a man who chases demons, a man obsessed with pursuit of David, and a man who is paranoid. Thus he struggles constantly with his own family members as well as his circle of friends. He feuds with the prophet Samuel. He is ruthless and merciless. He kills the priests of Nob and massacres the Gibeonites. From the battle at Michmas till the last day of his life, fear is his constant companion—fear of the people, fear of his son Jonathan, fear of David, fear of the Benjaminites, and fear of the Philistines, the people of Nob, and the Gibeonites. Even on the eve of his last battle against the Philistines, “When Saul saw the Philistine force, his heart trembled with fear” (1 Sam 28:5). When Samuel rose from the grave and delivered his message to him, Saul was terrified (v. 20). Evidently these fears were not baseless but reflective of actual threats. Fear also caused him to indulge in self-pity: “May you be blessed of the Lord for the compassion you have shown me!” (1 Sam 23:21). This self-pity was so obvious that in his pursuit of David he was transformed from pursuer to pursued.
The ambivalent attitude towards Saul is also found among the sages, who, as mentioned above, praised Saul on one hand, but criticized him harshly on the other. In reference to Ps 7:1: “Shiggaion of David which he sang to the Lord, concerning Cush, a Benjaminite,” they said that Saul was unusual in the aspect of his
