with a free matron (Valerius Maximus 8.1. acquittals 12).
96. Philo Abraham 135–37; Spec. Laws 3.37–39; Josephus Ag. Ap. 2.273–75; Ps.-Phoc. 190–92; T. Naph. 3:4–5; cf. the later recension of 2 En. 10:4. More generally, Lev 18:22; 20:13; Josephus Ag. Ap. 2.199, 215; idem Ant. 3.275; Ps.-Phoc. 3; Sib. Or. 3.764; 4.34; 5.166, 387, 430.
97. On homosexual behavior as a Gentile sin, see e.g., Let. Aris. 152; Sib. Or. 3.185–86, 596–600; Tg. Ps.-J. on Gen 39:1. Later rabbis disclaimed even suspecting this behavior for Israelites (y. Qidd. 4:11, §6).
98. See Keener 2000d: 685.
99. Paul’s “unfitting” may reflect Stoic terminology, alluding to people acting against nature (1:26–27); but the particular examples of “unfitting things” here unfold in 1:29–31.
100. E.g., Ezek 18:6–8, 11–13; Philo Posterity 52; Sacrifices 32; Plato Laws 1.649D; Aristotle Eth. eud. 2.3.4, 1220b–21a; Cicero Pis. 27.66; idem Cat. 2.4.7; 2.5.10; 2.10.22, 25; Seneca Dial. 9.2.10–12.
101. Lists could either use repeated conjunctions (e.g., “and . . . and”; 1 Cor 6:9–10; 2 Cor 12:21; Acts 15:20) or no conjunctions (asyndeton), as here (cf. Gal 5:19–23).
102. Even from the era of the “beginning” (1:20) they knew (cf. Gen 3:3) that human death was the consequence of humanity’s sin (Rom 5:12, 14, 17, 21; 6:16, 21, 23; 7:5, 13). This was even more true for knowers of the law (cf. 2:26; 8:4). Jewish teachers also believed that God had given commandments to humanity before the law (Jub. 7:20–21; Ps.-Phoc. passim; what the later rabbis called Noahide commandments, e.g., Mek. Bah. 5.90–94; Sipre Deut. 343.4.1).
103. Dikaiōma. God’s righteous character is thus also revealed in his wrath (1:18), though especially in the gospel where he puts people in the right (1:17); the tension is resolved especially in 3:26.
Romans 2
Made Right by Trusting Christ (1:18—5:11), cont.
God’s Impartial Judgment (2:1–16)
In this section (and some others, most obviously 3:1–9; 9:14–24) Paul employs a lively rhetorical style called diatribe, commonly used for teaching. This style typically includes an imaginary interlocutor, who may or may not be explicitly identified, who raises objections. These objections allow the speaker or writer to develop the argument, demolishing the objections one at a time while holding the audience’s attention.1 Scholars debate whether Paul begins addressing a specifically Jewish interlocutor here (2:3) or only at 2:17 (where it is explicit); most likely he implicitly addresses the Jewish interlocutor throughout the chapter, since what “we know” (2:2), what the interlocutor should know (2:4), and the continuity of subject matter (cf. 2:9–10, 12–15; with 2:25–29) all suggest a Jewish hearer. Nevertheless, Paul remains subtle in the first section, springing his rhetorical trap only gradually as he shows that Jew and Gentile alike are condemned. Singling out a hearer (rhetorical “apostrophe”), as Paul does with “O man” (2:1, 3; cf. 9:20), was a common rhetorical device,2 again effective for holding audience attention.
Because those who commit all kinds of sins (1:29–31) recognize that such behavior merits death under God’s standard (1:32), they deserve divine judgment (2:3, 5). Whether they (like morally lax Gentiles) excuse or (like strict Jews) condemn such behavior, they are condemned (2:15). In 1:32 they excuse it, and in 2:1 they condemn it, but both approaches of sinners are inexcusable (1:20; 2:1–5).
Paul develops this condemnation of those who piously denounce sin by means of a syllogism: they commit these sins (2:1), we know that such sins merit God’s judgment (2:2; cf. 1:32), therefore they will not escape God’s judgment (2:3). Most people recognized and condemned such inconsistency,3 a point to which Paul returns in a more explicit challenge to a Jewish interlocutor in 2:17–25. Paul prepares his audience far in advance for his warning against judging culturally different believers in Rom 14:3–4, 10, 13.
If anyone wishes to appeal to God’s mercy, Paul is clear (against some of his detractors, 3:8) that God’s mercy gives space for repentance. That is, God’s mercy brings about righteousness, rather than simply blessing sinners in their sin (2:4). Jewish hearers would understand that the kindness of God was what led people to repentance (2:4);4 some also thought of treasuring up rewards in heaven (cf. e.g., Tob 4:9–10)—though what is stored up here is wrath (2:5)!5
Continuing his lavish display of effective literary devices, Paul now reinforces his point with inverted repetition, what is called a chiasm (2:6–11):
A God repays each according to their works (2:6)
B To those who do good, seeking glory and honor6 (2:7)
C But wrath to those who disobey the truth (2:8)7
C´ Suffering to those who do evil (2:9)
B´ But glory and honor to those who do good (2:10)
A´ Because God is impartial (2:11)
In this passage Paul argues for God’s ethnic impartiality.8 Contrary to Jewish expectations, God will judge both Jew and Gentile (2:9–10), both those with the law of Moses and those with only natural law (2:12–15)—and he will hold those with greater revelation more accountable! Judging people in accordance with their deeds was one way of speaking of God’s impartiality;9 the surprise is that, instead of God’s own people being favored, they are judged more strictly because they have a fuller knowledge of right and wrong (2:12–15; 3:20; 7:7–11; cf. Amos 3:2).
In view of the lostness of all humanity in this section (3:9, 23), scholars debate whether those who do good works for eternal life10 represent a real but small class of people (the way some Jewish people thought of “righteous Gentiles”); a hypothetical class of people (posited perhaps for rhetorical purposes) (cf. 10:5; Gal 3:11);11 or Christians (cf. 2:29). Especially both latter proposals may have some merit: in principle it is the righteous who will be saved, and in practice it is those who are in Christ who can live righteously (8:2–4). Yet Paul’s focus at this point is not on Christians, but on the principle of God’s ethnic impartiality (also the point of all humanity being under sin in 3:9). Paul is digressing on the point precisely to explain how those who fancied themselves morally superior were treasuring up wrath for themselves (2:5). It served Paul’s point to note that Gentiles would at least sometimes do morally right actions, whereas Jews would sometimes not do them. Nevertheless, apart from Christ, the natural law of
