Paul would be unlikely to commend the Colossians’ faithfulness and steadfastness if they had succumbed to the philosophy (1:4; 2:5). Never are the “teachers” in Colossae charged with denying Jesus, perverting the gospel, or with being “false” as Paul alleges of his opponents elsewhere (see Gal 1:7; 2:4–5; 5:2–4; 2 Cor 11:4; cf. Jude 4; 1 John 4:1–2; Rev 2:2).
The philosophy was clearly indebted to Judaism in some form given the references to the Sabbath (2:16), circumcision (2:11), and food laws (2:21). However, the references to the “powers” (1:16; 2:8, 10, 15), the “worship of angels” (2:18), asceticism (2:21–23), festivals (2:16), and wisdom (1:9, 2:3, 23; 3:16) could derive from a number of different religious and philosophical systems. If we add to that the melting pot of religions, philosophies, and magic in Phrygia (interior Asia Minor) where syncretism was common and Jewish acculturation inevitable, it further complicates our ability to pin down concretely the philosophy to any one particular philosophical school or known religious movement. Even so, three main options present themselves for consideration.
First, the “philosophy” could have derived from one of the Hellenistic philosophical schools of Pythagoreanism,52 Middle Platonism,53 or even Cynicism.54 The problem is, however, that “philosophy” is such a broad category and many of the philosophies of the ancient world (Stoicism, Pythagoreanism, Cynicism, etc.) often overlapped in their metaphysical understanding of the world. Moreover, while it is conceivable that Jewish philosophers could admix Hellenistic philosophy to their system of belief, it is less likely that non-Jews would add Jewish rituals denoting Jewish identity to their religious practices, especially Sabbath keeping and circumcision.
Second, the philosophers might be advocating a syncretistic amalgam of Judaism and indigenous Phrygian practices of magic, mysteries, and angel veneration. Nearly all commentators regard the philosophy as a syncretism of some form.55 Philo appears to complain about the infiltration of syncretism among the Jews of Alexandria, which poses a similar analogy.56 Martin Hengel and Anna Maria Schwemer point out that around one third of the extant magical papyri and amulets are based on Jewish elements.57 We also know from later papyri and patristic evidence that even many Christians were willing to use magic spells for particular ends.58 Furthermore, some Jews were known to practice magic as evidenced by Bar-Jesus/Elymas who, according to Acts, was something of a personal attendant or chaplain to Sergius Paulus on the island of Cyprus (Acts 13:6–12). The second century Christian polemicist Celsus mentioned Jews “who worship angels and are addicted to sorcery of which Moses was their teacher.”59 Clinton Arnold has shown how angels were important in ancient magic for protection and petitions.60 There is an inscription from Phrygia concerning a Jewish lady, Julia Severa, who was a synagogue benefactor and a priestess of the imperial cult.61
At the same time, the argument for a syncretistic Judaism in Asia Minor can be overstated. Josephus records that most Jews in Asia Minor strictly observed the laws about food and festivals and came into conflict with their Gentile neighbors because of their faithfulness to the Jewish way of life.62 Paul Trebilco states, “No evidence has arisen from this study to suggest that Judaism in Asia minor was syncretistic or had been compromised by paganism.”63 Similar is F. F. Bruce: “Some outward conformity with pagan customs on the part of influential Jews in Phrygia may be taken as established; but it would be precarious to draw conclusions from this about forms of syncretism that might be reflected in the beliefs and practices deprecated in Paul’s Epistle to the Colossians.”64 We should also be aware of the looseness of the term “syncretism.” What counts as syncretism? For instance, according to the Mishnah tractate Abodah Zarah a Jew is permitted to make and sell idols for a living (m. Abod. Zar. 1.8). If one believes that Zeus is another name of Yahweh, is that syncretism or pluralism (Ep. Arist. 16)? Some Jewish apocalyptic writings could venerate angels like Metratron, the “little Yahwheh,” but without actually compromising their Jewish beliefs in toto (3 En. 10:3; 12:5; 17:1–3; 30:1; b. Sanh. 38b). In relation to Colossians, I would make two further points. First, there is no reference to magic, amulets, spells, calling on angels, or initiation rites in pagan temples. Second, there is a difference between syncretism and acculturation. Colossians exhibits the telltale signs of a set of Jewish teachings expressed in the idiom and categories of Hellenism. Yet Hellenism itself can either flatten out or reinforce Jewish distinctives as exposure to a secondary culture forces one to either absorb or deflect external influences.
Third, the philosophy is conceivably a form of Judaism that is being commended to the Colossians. Judaism could also be described as a philosophy in apologetic literature.65 Josephus describes the various Jewish sects as philosophies66 and he can even refer to the Jewish religion as a form of national philosophy.67 Philo represents Judaism as achieving the highest ideals of Hellenistic philosophy.68 What also indicates Jewish adversaries is the injunction in 2:16–17, where the triadic formula of festivals, new moons, and Sabbaths occurs in the Septuagint and represents the commandments of the Torah (law of Moses). The references to circumcision (2:11, 3:11, and 4:11) imply that while circumcision itself was probably not the presenting issue, nonetheless, it was crucial in identifying Paul’s opponents. What is more, there are a number of similarities between the teachers in Colossae and the proselytizers in Galatia and how both are engaged by Paul. The philosophy is touted as an oppressive spiritual force in much the same way that Paul likens the law in Galatians to hostile spiritual powers (Col 2:8, 14–15; Gal 4:9–11). In Colossians, as in Galatians, the erroneous beliefs required Paul to shore up the integrity of Gentile Christian identity without the need to take on law observance (Col 3:11; Gal 3:28). In Colossians as in Galatians, Paul exhorts that one does not require Torah to facilitate righteous living (Col 2:23–3:17; Gal 5:13–15). In Colossians as in Galatians, freedom from the designs of the Colossian philosophers and from the Galatian proselytizers is indebted to dying with Messiah and being baptized into Messiah (Col 2:12; 3:3; Gal 3:26–27). Colossians and Galatians both refer to the freedom of the Christian from circumcision and festivals (Col 2:11–12, 16; Gal 5:2; 6:12–15; 4:10) and refer to deliverance from evil powers (Col 1:13–14; Gal 1:4). In light of this, it seems that Paul is evidently negating the value of Jewish boundary markers and lessening the social and religious function of the law as it stands as a threat to the integrity of Jesus-believing Gentiles and involves a devaluing of the preeminence of the Messiah.
But what type of Judaism was Paul engaging? A hybrid Jewish Gnosticism could be conceivable if Colossians was written late in the first century or in the early second century.69 Yet Colossians was not likely to have been composed so late, and the philosophy lacks the anti-cosmic dualism that was at the root of Gnosticism whereby the creation of the material world is attributed to the act of a malevolent demiurge. Over a hundred years ago J. B. Lightfoot suggested that the “heresy” had an affinity with Essenism and Gnosticism since the Essenes had a tendency towards mysticism.70 The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, arguably stemming from an Essene sect, provided further grounds
