in response to the sound of a bell, but the dogs learned it meant food was coming.
Classical conditioning is most often used as counter-conditioning in conjunction with desensitization as a way of helping dogs to overcome fears. Desensitization means presenting the stimulus at a very low level that the dog is happy with, and gradually increasing it so the dog becomes used to it (the opposite of sensitization). In counter-conditioning, every single presentation of the stimulus is followed by something the dog likes (such as chicken or cheese) so the dog learns the stimulus predicts good stuff happening. Note that no behavior is required from the dog in desensitization and counter-conditioning (other than being aware of the stimulus), as the aim is to change the dog’s emotions, not behavior.
Desensitization and counter-conditioning
•The “thing” (CS) happens at a level the dog is happy with—for example, a very quiet recording of fireworks or a stranger standing still in the distance.
•As soon as the dog notices the “thing,” they receive food (US), which the dog likes (UR).
•Over time, the dog learns to like the “thing,” which is the conditioned response (CR).
A great way to do this in real life is to use Jean Donaldson’s Open Bar/Closed Bar technique. As soon as the dog notices the stimulus, start the flow of chicken or cheese (or whatever great treats you are using) as “the bar is open.” Keep the flow going until the stimulus goes away or stops, and then stop the flow of treats (“the bar is now closed”). This technique helps to make the predictive relationship between the stimulus and the food obvious to the dog. All of this should happen while the dog is happy with the level of the stimulus. If you accidentally go “over threshold,” immediately reduce the level of the stimulus (e.g., turn the volume down or put distance between you and the stranger), and then feed as per usual.
Operant conditioning: learning from Skinner
One of my favorite things to teach a dog is a brief sit-stay—especially if the dog is jumpy, bouncy, and mouthy, because it can make such a difference to the ease of interaction with that dog. It is fun too, with early steps that give the dog the chance to earn many rewards in a minute. Some dogs find it really tough to sit still while I dangle a piece of chicken in front of them for just one second; other dogs find the tough part is when I start to move a little and they want to jump up and follow me. Over time, as sitting still gets more and more of a reinforcement history, it happens more often, even when I haven’t asked for it. This is in line with one of the early laws of animal behavior, stated by American psychologist Edward Thorndike as the law of effect: behaviors that get pleasant consequences will be repeated more often, whereas those that have unpleasant consequences will happen less.
B.F. Skinner elaborated on Thorndike’s ideas and did the classic work on operant conditioning. He delineated what dog trainers often refer to as quadrants: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.
Positive reinforcement (R+) means adding something immediately after a behavior occurs to increase the frequency of the behavior. Technically speaking, the term breaks down into two parts. Reinforcement means the behavior continues or becomes more frequent. And positive means something is added. For example, you ask the dog to sit, the dog sits, and you give them a treat (something is added). The dog is more likely to sit next time you ask (the behavior was reinforced). Here, the words positive and negative are not being used as evaluative terms (good and bad), but as neutral descriptions as to whether something was added or taken away.
Punishment means something that reduces the likelihood of a behavior happening again; in other words, the behavior becomes less frequent. So positive punishment (P+) means adding something after the dog does a behavior that decreases the frequency of the behavior. For example, if the dog jumps up when you come in the door and you knee them in the chest, and the next time you come in the door the dog does not jump up, you have positively punished the jumping. You added something (the unpleasant sensation of a knee in the chest) and reduced the frequency of the behavior. Please note, I am not advocating this as a way to train a dog, and we’ll get to the reasons why in a moment. And it may also not work (e.g., if the dog perceives it as a game and keeps jumping). In everyday speech, when we say the word “punishment,” we mean positive punishment.
Negative reinforcement (R–) means taking something away that increases the frequency of the behavior. An example would be pushing on the dog’s bottom until they sit, at which point you let go. Assuming that the dog sits more often, the behavior of sitting is reinforced by removing the pressure on the dog’s bottom. And negative punishment (P–) means taking something away that makes the behavior decrease in frequency. For example, your dog jumps on you and you turn away from them or even leave the room for thirty seconds every time. You are taking your attention away and the dog is less likely to jump up in future (but remember what I said earlier about extinction bursts!).
Examples of operant conditioning: reward-based training uses R+ and P–
| ANTECEDENT | BEHAVIOR | CONSEQUENCE | RESULT |
| You say “sit” | The dog sits | R+ Something good happens e.g., chicken, cheese, or treats; a quick game of tug; attention such as petting | The behavior happens more often |
| You come home | The dog jumps on you | P– Something good is taken away e.g., the flow of chicken, cheese, or treats stops; the game of tug ends; the person stops giving attention or leaves the room | The behavior happens less often |
| You greet the dog | The dog jumps on you | P+ Something bad happens e.g., a tug on the leash, pressure to push the dog’s bottom down, a zap from the shock collar | The behavior happens less often |
| You say “sit” while tugging the leash, pushing the dog’s rear end, or applying the shock collar | The dog sits | R– Something bad is taken away or stops e.g., tugging on the leash stops, pressure is no longer applied to the dog’s rear end, the shock from the collar stops | The behavior happens more often |
The table has examples of reinforcement and punishment. Note the consequence has to have an effect on behavior. For example, if you pet the dog intending it to be positive reinforcement but it has no effect on the dog’s behavior, then the petting wasn’t actually reinforcing to the dog.
Consequences are not the only way to change behaviors; we can also change the antecedents, something dog trainers call antecedent arrangements. For example, suppose the dog has a habit of drinking from the toilet bowl. The antecedent is that the lid is up allowing access to the toilet water. A very sensible antecedent arrangement would be to ensure the lid is never left up, so it is not possible for the dog to drink the toilet water. Of course, you should also ensure the dog has access to a suitable water supply!
DOG TRAINING: THE LINK BETWEEN TRAINING METHODS AND BEHAVIOR
REWARD-BASED METHODS ARE those that use positive reinforcement (R+) and/or negative punishment (P–), or humane management strategies (such as putting a lid on the garbage can to keep dogs from raiding the trash, or using a no-pull harness for dogs that pull on-leash).6 Exercise and enrichment are also
