than falling prices – particularly in emerging market economies. Fiscal policies have also been more flexible. When the recession hit in 2008–9, governments were prepared to allow their deficits to rise for a while and incur extra borrowing to support demand – heeding the policy advice from John Maynard Keynes in the 1930s. It is only as growth has resumed that Western governments have focused more actively on deficit and debt reduction.
Another important difference from the 1930s is that we have seen a stronger focus on international economic policy cooperation, which was particularly noticeable in the depths of the crisis in 2008 and 2009. The G20 – which includes leading emerging markets and developing economies as well as the major Western powers – has become an important forum for discussion of international economic policy issues. The G20 Summit in London in April 2009 provided a strong commitment to use expansionary monetary policies across the world to support demand and to avoid protectionism, even though there were differences of view and emphasis between governments on how far extra public spending and borrowing should be used to support demand.
Perhaps most important of all, the world has avoided a serious lapse into protectionism, which greatly aggravated the length and depth of the Great Depression. The US Tariff Act, which was signed into law in June 1930, prompted a worldwide surge in protectionist measures as other countries retaliated to restrictions on their exports. World trade fell between 1929 and 1933 by nearly 30% and trade volumes did not recover their pre-recession level until after World War II.14
By contrast, though world trade was hit by recession in 2008–9, it soon bounced back. Trade volumes dropped by more than 10% in 2009, but that decline was more than recouped in 2010 and world trade in 2013 is, at the time of writing, estimated to be 13% above its pre-recession peak in 2008. There have been occasional bouts of sabre rattling on trade issues – like the spat in 2013 between the European Union and China over the alleged dumping of solar panels. There have also been periodic concerns about so-called currency wars – worries that competitive devaluations would spur a round of protectionist responses with new trade barriers being imposed. But the open rule-based trade system policed by the World Trade Organization (WTO) has been kept intact. Indeed, more countries and people are actively participating in the world trading system than at any previous time in the history of the world. The WTO currently has 159 member countries which account for over 98% of global trade and GDP and around 94% of the world’s population.
So if the lessons of the 1930s have been heeded and have had a major influence on policymaking, what about the lessons of the 1970s? The economic turmoil we saw then has been a less obvious point of reference for policymakers and economic analysts recently – perhaps because that decade is remembered, particularly in Britain, as a time of rip-roaring inflation. Even though inflation has been higher than expected in many countries in recent years, it has not become the dominant economic problem that it was for major economies like the United Kingdom and the United States in the 1970s. But this important difference has deflected attention away from other parallels between our current position and the 1970s. Economically, we have gone back to the 70s in four significant ways.
Back to the 70s: Financial crisis
As in 2008, an international financial crisis – with its roots in the policies pursued by the United States – paved the way for the economic turmoil of the mid 1970s and beyond. Unlike our recent crisis, the financial turbulence of the early 1970s did not originate from instability in banks and other private sector financial institutions. It stemmed from the unravelling of the official framework underpinning financial stability – the system of fixed exchange rates which had been in place for a quarter of a century after World War II. This set of arrangements – known as the Bretton Woods system – provided a vital anchor for the long post-war expansion which dominated the 1950s and 1960s in Europe and North America.
The Bretton Woods system derives its name from a town in New Hampshire in the United States where the Allied nations met in 1944 to plan for the post-war economic future, amid growing confidence that they would be victorious in World War II. The objective was to put in place a more cooperative system of international finance and economic policymaking to avoid the problems which had plagued the world’s major economies in the 1930s. The great economist John Maynard Keynes played a major role in the conference – though not all his ideas were adopted.
Конец ознакомительного фрагмента.
Текст предоставлен ООО «ЛитРес».
Прочитайте эту книгу целиком, купив полную легальную версию на ЛитРес.
Безопасно оплатить книгу можно банковской картой Visa, MasterCard, Maestro, со счета мобильного телефона, с платежного терминала, в салоне МТС или Связной, через PayPal, WebMoney, Яндекс.Деньги, QIWI Кошелек, бонусными картами или другим удобным Вам способом.
