Spencer/social darwinism and Francis Galton/eugenics—with biological theory—Charles Darwin/evolution. See James Trent, Inventing the Feeble Mind: A History of Mental Retardation in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Wolf Wolfensberger, The Origin and Nature of Our Institutional Models (Syracuse: Human Policy Press, 1975).
5. Samuel Gridley Howe, “Report made to the Legislature of Massachusetts, 1848,” reprinted in James Trent, Inventing the Feeble Mind: A History of Mental Retardation in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994) pp. 23–26.
6. It was during the French Revolution that “enlightened” doctors first began to investigate the behavior and treatment of patients who were considered “lunatics” or “idiots” and were confined to prison/hospitals. Philip Pinel is sited as the first doctor to notice that the behavior of the inmates of the Bicetré prison of Paris could be influenced by exercise, light, and good food—or humane treatment. The “prisoners” he discovered responded to these treatments—their health improved and often they stopped behaving like madmen or criminals. Pinel was both a mathematician and doctor who had studied Rousseau. It was in 1793 during the revolution that he first unchained his “patients.” Some he wrote had been shackled in their cells for 30 years. Eduard Seguin was a student of Pinel and like Pinel was influenced by the writings of Rousseau, Locke, and Condillac—on the nature of man and society, and the role of education. While these early educators/doctors had differing opinions about whether or not “idiot” children could learn, they were the first to explore the possibilities. For a theoretical discussion on the ideas of Philip Pinel see Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason (New York: Random House, 1965). For an interesting discussion on the educational ideas of Eduard Seguin, see James Trent, Inventing the Feeble Mind: A History of Mental Retardation in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994) pp. 40–59.
7. Sarah Mondale and Sarah B. Patton, School: The Story of American Public Education (Boston, Beacon Press, 2001); James Trent, Inventing the Feeble Mind: A History of Mental Retardation in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).
8. For a more thorough description of the change in attitude toward mental retardation in the late 19th century, and the remarkable transformation in thinking of the early education “humanitarians,” see James Trent, Inventing the Feeble Mind: A History of Mental Retardation in America (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1994). For a description of the ways these philosophical shifts manifested themselves in the design of care, the architecture, and ultimately their embodiment in the state institutional system, see Wolf Wolfensberger, The Origin and Nature of Our Institutional Models (Syracuse: Human Policy Press, 1975). Also see Irving Goffman, Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates (New (York: Anchor/Doubleday Books, 1961).
9. The compulsory education bill for feebleminded children was repealed in 1957. Even though it was irregularly enforced, the Washington State Archive has long lists of children with disabilities from that era. In the early 20th century people with disabilities were stigmatized and eugenic sterilization laws were enforced in Washington State to control the spread of the “feebleminded.” Parents often hid their children at home, or relinquished them to the state institutions. Numerous investigations of state facilities between 1880 to well into the 1960s found them under-staffed and overcrowded—often with people being abused and living in subhuman conditions. Wolf Wolfensberger, The Origin and Nature of Our Institutional Models (Syracuse: (Human Policy Press, 1975). See also Burton Blatt and Fred Kaplan, Christmas in Purgatory: A Photographic Essay on Mental Retardation (Syracuse: Human Policy Press, 1975, originally published in 1966); and Barbara Brecheen, Developmental Disablilties Services: An Historical Outline 1861-1980 (Olympia: Publication of the Division of Developmental Disablilties).
10. For a history of the Washington ARC and their early advocacy activities see Larry A. Jones and Phyllis A. Barnes, Doing Justice: A History of the Association for Retarded Citizens of Washington (Olympia: ARC of Washington, 1987); and Larry A. Jones, Phyllis A. Barnes, and Russell Hollander, “Our Brothers’ Keepers: The Story of Human Services in Washington,” 1853-1937.” Columbia Spring 1989.
11. I made no accurate count of the materials I looked through, though I estimate over 2,000 pieces of visual information—photos, snapshots, articles, and other documents. I have over 40 hours of interviews—800 pages of transcriptions, documentation and notes.
12. Normalization was an idea first articulated by Scandinavian activists Gunnar and Rosemary Dybwad. Wolf Wolfensberger, in his influential book, The Principle of Normalization (Toronto: National Institute on Retardation, 1972), promoted de-institutionalization and normalization—bringing people out of the state institutions and into the mainstream of daily life. This idea became a guidepost for many parents during the ‘60s and ‘70s.
Becoming Citizens
Family Life and the Politics of Disability
You’re one birth away
from my experience,
that’s what I think…
–Nancy Melzer
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