The sequence of events from conception of the design of a warship, through the tendering process to the construction, completion and trials is largely the same for all the vessels described here. The information used to describe this process is based on two sources: the Ships’ Covers held at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich and the archives of John Brown & Co Ltd, Clydebank, held at Glasgow University Archives. The Ships’ Covers were used to retain documents relevant to individual ships from the conceptual phase through construction and subsequent service careers. They reflect Admiralty thinking through internal memos, letters, reports and other material across a range of subjects pertinent to a particular ship or class of ships. The shipbuilder’s records are concerned exclusively with the tendering and construction phases of the ship. Together, both sources throw some light on the relationship between the Admiralty and the shipbuilding firms in what has generally been a neglected area of study. The Covers are, however, somewhat haphazard in their organisation with some documents out of chronological order and others undated. Where the Cover for one ship might give a full report on steam trials, for example, this might be missing entirely in another. The John Brown archive, although voluminous, is also incomplete and inconsistent in part. For those reasons, an even treatment of the five ships that concern this book is not possible. However, a particular strength of the John Brown Archive is the large number of glass plate negatives which record the building process from keel laying to trials. These excellent images provide the pictorial basis for this book.
John Brown & Co Ltd
By the time Inflexible was laid down at their Clydebank shipyard in 1906, the yard had been in existence since 1871. Many prestigious liners had been constructed over the years and a lasting relationship had been formed with Cunard, the most recent example of which was the order for Lusitania. However, the Clydebank works did not assume the title John Brown & Co Ltd until 1899 when the Sheffield company of that name purchased the yard for a little under £1 million. The Sheffield company wanted a secure outlet for their steel forge and armour products and correctly foresaw a great opportunity in warship construction not simply because of the Royal Navy’s pre-eminent position in the fleets of the world but also in the emerging naval race between Britain and Germany. During the 1890s a number of well-known British companies with armour and armament manufacturing capacities had also ventured into shipbuilding, such as Vickers at Barrow and Cammell at Birkenhead, as a means of extending and consolidating output. In all probability, the reality of this contest as measured by the volume of warship orders that ensued exceeded their wildest dreams.
Even before the acquisition of Clydebank by John Brown, the yard had completed an interesting number of warship orders. From the mid-1880s, onwards, a series of small cruisers were built for the Admiralty as well as a protected cruiser for the Spanish (Reina Regente) and Japanese (Chiyoda) navies. More orders followed for larger vessels including Terrible (1897) and many torpedo-boat destroyers. The first battleship order was Ramillies (1892), followed by Jupiter (1895), Asahi (1899) for the Japanese government and Hindustan (1903). Under the ownership of John Brown & Co Ltd, the Clydebank Works had a high degree of autonomy although major decision making was referred to the main John Brown Board, under the chairmanship of Lord Aberconway, which met at either the Sheffield Works or at the company’s London offices at The Sanctuary.
By 1906, the Clydebank Works covered 80 acres comprising two yards separated by a fitting-out basin and a large engine and boiler works. The town of Clydebank grew up around the shipyard which by 1899 had a population of 19,000. By 1906, the Clydebank Works was well equipped, highly efficient and an experienced shipbuilding and marine engineering facility employing up to 10,000 workers.
Sir Thomas Bell
The Managing Director of the John Brown works at Clydebank was Thomas Bell, knighted in 1918 for his services to the nation as Deputy Controller of Dockyards and War Shipbuilding for the period 1917–19. Bell was a marine engineer and responsible for the introduction of the Brown Curtis turbine to Clydebank. This turbine found favour with the Admiralty and was used in propelling Tiger, Repulse and Hood as well as many other warships. Bell attributed the success of his firm in winning these orders to that turbine. In 1919, on his return as Managing Director of the Clydebank works, he said that ‘Clydebank stood in the Admiralty records easy first, not alone for excellence of work but what was at that time of still greater importance, absolute fidelity to their promises of dates of delivery.’
The Naval Construction Industry
Britain’s pre-eminent position in the fleets of the world, both naval and mercantile, ensured a very large shipbuilding industry. While the Royal Dockyards had traditionally built the ships the Royal Navy required, increasingly the private shipyards were participating in warship building programmes. The Admiralty nurtured these firms by ensuring sufficient orders were distributed across the industry. To be eligible to build warships, a builder had to be on the Admiralty List. This required that a shipbuilder had the requisite experience and suitable plant and facilities for any given class of warship or equivalent experience in mercantile work. Constructing the battle fleet that went to sea in the First World War, required the resources of a large portion of the private shipbuilding industry in addition to the Royal Dockyards. The following firms in addition to Portsmouth and Devonport Dockyards, participated in the construction of battlecruisers and battleships from 1906 onwards.
(Drawing by the author)
A midships view taken on 13 July 1916 of Repulse with two ‘R’ class destroyers fitting out alongside. Painting is underway on the forward superstructure including bridge, tripod foremast and fore funnel. The spotting top of the monitor Erebus, brought to Clydebank to have her 15in mounting fitted can be seen bottom left.
(NRS UCS1-118-443-275)
In this 1918 view from the stern of a river steamer, the 150-ton cantilever fitting-out crane dominates the skyline with the East Yard behind. Reflecting the heavier loads being lifted, the shipbuilding berths have now been equipped with steel lattice derricks capable of lifting five tons. (Imperial War Museum Q19400)
Armstrong Whitworth, Elswick and Walker (no associated engine or boiler works)
Beardmore, Dalmuir
John Brown, Clydebank
Cammell Laird, Birkenhead
Fairfield, Govan
Palmers, Jarrow
Scotts, Greenock
Thames Iron Works, Blackwall
Vickers Son & Maxim, Barrow in Furness
Other major shipbuilders such as Harland & Wolff and Swan Hunter & Wigham Richardson, who were on the Admiralty List, either declined to tender or were unsuccessful in winning contracts.
While the shipyards brought ships into existence, vital parts of the ship such as armour and armament were manufactured elsewhere and transported by rail or sea to the shipyard concerned. There were five large armour-rolling mills in Britain at the time of the First World War but only three firms capable of manufacturing heavy gun mountings. The same applied to the construction of main propelling machinery. While most of the large shipbuilding firms mentioned here had integrated or associated engine and boiler works, some did not. Where a warship contract
