Other hallucinogens
Other chemical substances that could be classified under the hallucinogens include PCP (phencyclidine, angel dust), ketamine (Special K, K or kitcat) and cannabis (weed, dagga, dope, hashish, grass, Durban poison, Malawi cob, skunk or marijuana).
Other drugs of abuse
These drugs do not fit neatly into any of the above three categories.
Anabolic steroids
They are used to increase performance and muscle mass of athletes and body builders. They are often referred to as juice or roids.
Inhalants
These substances are found in glues, nail polish removers, deodorants, air fresheners, paints, lighter fluid, paint strippers, hair spray and cleaning agents. There are five chemical classes within this group. They are aliphatic hydrocarbons (including petrol, benzine and turpentine), simple asphyxiants (butane and propane), aromatic hydrocarbons (toluene, benzene, xylene), chlorinated hydrocarbons (dichloroethylene, trichloroethane, chloroform) and nitrous oxide (laughing gas).
Volatile nitrites
They are commonly known as poppers and include amyl, butyl and isobutyl nitrite.
Some drugs are not easy to classify. They tend to cross the artificial classification boundaries and could be grouped in a number of different categories. These substances are therefore placed in a fifth group.
Drugs that overlap categories
Ecstasy, MDA and mescaline
These can be classified as stimulants or a hallucinogens. They have an effect on both dopamine and serotonin.
Cannabis and PCP
These are classified as hallucinogens in my classification system, but also have stimulant and depressant effects.
Inhalants
These may also have depressant effects.
Please note that in the above categories I have dealt with each drug individually. However, most people who abuse drugs or alcohol do not use them in isolation. They often use more than one drug at a time. Stimulants may be used to get a high, after which depressants might be used to come down again. Numerous depressants are used in combination, for example alcohol and benzodiazepine medication are used together to enhance their effects – with potentially life-threatening consequences. Hallucinogens may cause a “bad trip” with resultant use of depressants to recover. Other common combinations include alcohol used with cocaine, cocaine with cannabis or cocaine with heroin. Such combinations change often, depending on the local drug culture.
Various adulterants or mixer substances may also be added to a drug in order to add volume. Such adulterants are varied and can include sugar, various medications, other drugs, quinine and strychnine. Even washing powder and Rattex poison have been used for this purpose. Polydrug abuse, especially when these substances have been adulterated, adds to the unpredictability, complexity and dangers associated with drug use.
Some drugs that have received attention in the media in recent years include the so-called “date-rape” drugs. This term refers to two drugs in particular, namely a benzodiazepine with the chemical name of flunitrazepam (brand name of Rohypnol and commonly known as roofies or rope) and GHB. Both of these substances cause an anterograde memory problem which means that one is unable to recall events while under the influence of these substances. Common “party” drugs used during raves or in nightclubs include stimulants such as ecstasy and methamphetamine, hallucinogens such as LSD and ketamine, and depressants such as various benzodiazepines and GHB.
It should be remembered that any classification system would have to change over time in order to accommodate newly discovered drugs from our natural plant and animal world. Similarly, new synthetically designed and manufactured drugs complicate any classification system even further.
HOW DANGEROUS IS DAGGA?
Dagga is the South African name for cannabis, which is made from the plant Cannabis sativa. Its active ingredient is 9 tetra-hydro-cannabinol (9THC). Other names for cannabis include grass, weed, dope, pot, hemp and marijuana, among many others. When cannabis is rolled into a cigarette, it is called a joint; when it is wrapped in newspaper, it is called a zol. Cannabis mixed with mandrax (methaqualone) is commonly known as a white pipe. A particularly potent form of cannabis is hash or hashish. Usually, cannabis is smoked and thus reaches the lungs and blood very rapidly, from where it enters the brain. Occasionally, dagga is consumed in the form of dagga cookies.
Many myths exist about dagga and its effect on the body. The majority of these assert that dagga is either completely harmless or extremely dangerous. Neither is likely to be true, with the truth probably lying somewhere in the middle. It is difficult to give absolute medical facts on this question, as the evidence in most studies on the effect of dagga on the human body remains inconclusive.
We know that dagga and its purported medicinal properties have been known for many centuries. These include effects on inflammation, pain, seizures, nausea and anorexia. Dagga has therefore been used as an anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-convulsant, anti-emetic and appetite enhancer. Yet, numerous studies seem to implicate dagga in a number of adverse health consequences. These include respiratory inflammation, infections, cancers, cardiac effects, as well as adverse effects on human sexual functioning with a reduction in the sex hormones, sperm production and ovulation.
Dagga also seems to have adverse mental health consequences, particularly with early onset and regular dagga consumption. Specifically, dagga seems to be associated with an increased risk of depression. Exposure to dagga in vulnerable individuals may also lead to the development of psychosis. This may be especially relevant in the young and developing brain, for example, in teenagers and younger adults. Cannabis also seems to play a causal role in the development of schizophrenia. Once again, this risk seems to be increased in vulnerable individuals.
Short-term memory problems and possibly even irreversible cognitive problems have also been identified in early onset and frequent dagga users. Lastly, a particular psychiatric syndrome called amotivational syndrome has been identified. This is a clinical condition in which chronic and frequent dagga users seem to develop apathy, listlessness, fatigue and tiredness, as well as anhedonia with associated decreased motivation, drive, self-care and a lack of personal hygiene, work functioning and subsequent reduction in potential.
Finally, dagga has often been implicated as a “gateway” drug, leading to other potentially more dangerous drugs. It is therefore supposedly the first step on the path to more problematic drug use. The evidence suggests that this may be true in some instances, but the decision to proceed to other drugs is usually far more complex than a simple slide from dagga to the next illegal drug.
CHAPTER 2
MODELS OF ADDICTION
(Different views of the addiction problem)
Substance abuse and dependence is a global problem. It has been around since early humankind experienced the mind-altering effects of certain plants very long ago. Throughout the ages people have had much to say about the causes and treatment of addictions. Broadly speaking, most people’s views on the addiction problem can be summarised by referring to five different models (or theories) of addiction. These five models are:
1 The
