When Josie was in Moscow for party training in 1935, she left writings, including an autobiography about her youth and candid essays detailing her views on CPSA matters. While there, she testified at an important Comintern hearing on ideological disputes within the CPSA that featured Moses Kotane and Lazar Bach.
Despite consulting this range of sources, I still found significant gaps in reconstructing phases of Josie’s life. I hope that other historians will unearth more material.
A Note on the Names Mpama and Palmer
Josie used two surnames, Mpama and Palmer. Mpama (sometimes spelled “M’Pama”) came from her father, Stephen Mpama. The change to Palmer, an anglicization of Mpama, came in the mid-1930s when she and her family were living in Sophiatown. The advantage of taking the name Palmer is that her children could, with a European name, qualify for better schools. Because she shifted back and forth between the names throughout her life, I have avoided confusion by often referring to her simply as Josie in my narrative.
Acknowledgments
Research for this book was assisted by grants from the Fulbright Program in 1995 that afforded me the opportunity to begin researching Josie Mpama in South Africa and from the International Research and Exchanges Board that allowed me to travel to Moscow for several weeks in 1998. Apollon Davidson facilitated my stay in Moscow, and his colleague Valentin Gorodnov walked me through the bureaucratic labyrinth to arrange for research permits and assisted in identifying relevant files at the Russian Center for the Preservation and Study of Contemporary History. They were generous hosts, and I cannot thank them enough for their support. Dan Johns arranged accommodation for me in Moscow and has been a constant source of encouragement.
I have benefited enormously from the comments of Julie Wells, Noor Nieftagodien, Iris Berger, Helen Hopps, Andre Odendaal, Elinor Sisulu, Russell Martin, and several anonymous reviewers of earlier versions of my manuscript. The remarkable Africana bibliographer and historian Peter Limb alerted me to several newspaper columns mentioning Stephen Mpama.
Librarians and archivists have been instrumental in identifying sources. Michelle Pickover and Gabriele Mohale of the Historical Papers Archive at Witwatersrand University and Najwa Hendrickse of the Cape Town campus of the National Library of South Africa have been especially helpful.
As I was conceptualizing this study, I profited from a seminar organized by Phil Bonner and Noor Nieftagodien at the Local History project at Witwatersrand University.
Sally Gaulle assisted me with preserving photographs from a Palmer family album. I thank her for her friendship and dedication to my project. Rita Potenza assisted with identifying additional photographic material.
I benefited from the cooperation and support of Josie Palmer’s children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren: Hilda Johnson, Francis Palmer, Carol Matsie, Lorraine Johnson, Bella Johnson, Belinda Palmer, Virginia Palmer, and Nicolai Allard.
Vusi Khumalo arranged for an interview with Lorraine Johnson.
I continue to rely on the support of the Department of African Studies at Howard University and the Department of Historical Studies at Stellenbosch University.
Throughout my professional life, I have enjoyed the support of a network of friends who have encouraged my research. I would like to thank Albert and Anna Mari Grundlingh, Gail Gerhart, Peter Limb, Brenda Randolph, Chris and Pam Saunders, David Ambrose, Robert Vinson, Anne Mager, Charles and Eileen Villa Vicencio, Sally Gaule, May McClain, Charlotte and Pioneer Nhlapo, Mbye Cham, Sehoai Santho, Motlatsi Thabane, Hilary Sapire, David and Manana Coplan, Mathews and Pinky Phosa, Tito Mboweni, Roger and Hilary Southall, Luyanda Msumza, Vangi Titi, Neo and Khabo Ramoupi, Tshepo Moloi, Bruce Murray, Anthea Josias, David Wallace, Trish and Greg Josias, Andre Odendaal, Zohra Ibrahim, Rehana Odendaal, Adam Odendaal, Nadia Odendaal, David and Polly Dean, and Ben Carton and his impi.
I salute the League of Extraordinary Gentlemen for managing to publish dozens of books without once using the word zombie in a title.
As always, I thank my son Leteane for beginning and ending every day with a smile.
Finally, I would like to express my appreciation of Gill Berchowitz of Ohio University Press, who has guided several of my publications to fruition. She has been a mentor whose vision has contributed to not only past and present generations of Africanists but also to the next one.
Introduction
An Untidy Hero
“We women are the backbone of the nation,” declared Josie Mpama/Palmer, whose life as a political activist in South Africa was a testament to her assertion.1 From leading a major protest against lodger’s permits in Potchefstroom in the late 1920s to promoting community struggles on the Witwatersrand in the 1930s and 1940s and from playing a leading role in antipass campaigns in the 1940s and 1950s to being one of the founders of the Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW) in 1954, she was a pillar of the freedom struggle. Thus, it was fitting that in June 2004, the South African government recognized her service to the nation by posthumously awarding her the Order of Luthuli.2
Many women played critical roles in South Africa’s freedom struggle throughout the twentieth century, but despite the abundant academic studies,3 biographies,4 and autobiographies of women activists,5 they are often presented as marginal or insignificant figures in struggle narratives because they usually did not participate in the public domain of politics and political parties.6 And because they are generally perceived as directing their energies to family and domestic issues, they have been presented as “mothers, wives, sisters, and daughters” rather than activists in their own right.
An exception to this rule is Josie Mpama/Palmer, who played many public roles as a political activist. Nomboniso Gasa has accurately called her “an untidy hero for those who want to present a one-sided view of history. She demonstrated a fierce sense of power and of organizing women independently.”7 This biography is an attempt to narrate her life experiences and her contributions to the freedom struggle and how they add insight into our understanding of women’s political lives.8
Josie’s life sheds light on a number of issues. One is how her early life laid a foundation for issues she took on as a political activist. Josie was born in Potchefstroom less than a year after the end of the Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902) to a mixed-race woman and a Zulu man, a court interpreter whose views reflected those of the mission-educated black elite. After her parents divorced when she was seven, she was shuttled back and forth between different family members and had to find jobs as a domestic servant and seamstress. Her turbulent childhood taught her self-reliance and sensitized her as an adult to the need to protect both family and community.
In the late 1920s, she brought these concerns to her first experience in political activism: leading community protests that featured black women in Potchefstroom against an unpopular lodger’s fee that undermined the stability and cohesion of black families. Standing up for black families and communities became her passion for the rest of her life.
The Potchefstroom protests exposed her to the Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA). She joined the party in 1928 and was the first black woman to play a prominent role in it. After moving in 1931 to Sophiatown, a black community in Johannesburg, she threw herself into CPSA organizing and resisting government repression. She took the remarkable step of traveling to the Soviet Union in 1935 to receive training at a Communist International (Comintern) school. The CPSA had been crippled by internal ideological disputes,
