Allport ([1954] 1966:171).
36. Ibid. (9).
37. Ibid. (37).
38. Ibid. (9).
39. Ibid. (380).
40. Ibid. (191).
Descriptions of Images and Figures
Back to Figure
The examples of structural conditions are physical and cultural differences, rapid social change, and demographic increase. The examples of psychological conditions are family context, projection, and personal insecurity. These conditions lead to irrational categorization, hostility and rejection, in-groups versus out-groups, which in turn result in structural and/or individual prejudice.
Back to Figure
The matrix consists of a horizontal line and a vertical line. The left end of the horizontal line is nondiscriminator, and its right end is discriminator. The top end of the vertical line is unprejudiced, and the bottom line is prejudiced. The four different groups are as follows: Unprejudiced Nondiscriminators: All-Weather Liberals; Unprejudiced Discriminators: Fair-Weather Liberals; Prejudiced Nondiscriminators: Timid Bigots; Prejudiced Discriminators: Active Bigots.
Chapter 2 White Privilege
Robert Amico | Peggy McIntosh | Paula Rothenberg | Tim Wise
White privilege is now a regular part of the lexicon of racial and ethnic studies and is a popular concept in contemporary conversations on race and racism. Peggy McIntosh coined the term in 1988 when she wrote of 40 privileges that Whites receive but people of color do not. Since then, the concept of White privilege has been developed and used by many. In this chapter, the works of Robert Amico, Peggy McIntosh, Paula Rothenberg, and Tim Wise, all of whom undertake both a biographical and a scientific study of White privilege, are used.*
Photo 2.1 Robert Amico
Source: https://www.sbu.edu/academics/philosophy/faculty-andstaff/amico-robert-p-.
Photo 2.2 Peggy McIntosh
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Peggy_McIntosh.jpg.
Photo 2.3 Tim Wise
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tim_Wise.jpg.
Why This Theory
The study of racism often compares how people of color fare in relation to Whites on a host of indicators, such as education, employment, and pay. This comparative framework is common because inequalities become clear by comparing the group facing the problems—people of color—to the people who are deemed “normal”—Whites. This framework, however, often leads to a mistaken view of and/or singular focus on people of color “as the problem,” rather than Whites’ role in racism as the problem. Whites may be aware that racism, to some degree, exists but are unaware of how they benefit from that racism. The theory of White privilege, therefore, focuses on how Whites (1) participate in and perpetuate racism, intentionally or not, and (2) are oblivious to the benefits they receive because of racism. A greater goal of using this theory is helping Whites recognize their White privilege to help combat racism.1
Like other contemporary racial theories, the theory of White privilege emerged after the 1960s Civil Rights Movement to explain how racism persists despite existing laws against racial discrimination. Whites began looking inward to dissect how they experience privilege throughout their lives, both in daily interactions and at significant life moments, such as buying a house or getting a job. This chapter relies on the work of four White scholars: Robert Amico, Peggy McIntosh, Paula Rothenberg, and Tim Wise, all of whom have analyzed their own White privilege and who have systematically studied how White privilege sustains racism.
Description of the Theory
White privilege answers this question: If people of color are encountering racism, what are Whites experiencing? White privilege explains the “other side of racism,” the benefits and resources given to Whites and that are denied to people of color. White privilege is a “relational concept. It positions one person or group over another person or group. It is a concept of racial domination that enables us to see this relationship from the perspective of those who benefit from such domination.”2 White privilege permits insight into who benefits from racism and how they do so; only by looking holistically at both the discriminatory and the beneficial nature of racism can the problem be fully addressed. Within this theory, race is defined as “a socially constructed category for the purpose of controlling, dominating, and exploiting some for the benefit of others,”3 and racism is defined as “subordination of people of color by white people.”4
Often, Whites think racism is defined by individual hateful actions that come from “bad people” and do not recognize racism’s operation on the systemic and structural levels. White privilege theory, however, explains that racism against people of color and its corollary, White privilege, operate on a systemic and structural level as well as the individual level. Thus, White privilege is given to all Whites, not just White, wealthy, heterosexual men as the stereotypical image of White privilege recipients. Whites of all different classes, sexes, genders, sexual orientations, religions, and other intersecting identities receive White privilege, albeit how and to what degree White privilege is experienced vary across these intersecting identities. Whites receive White privilege whether they desire it or not, and they benefit from it whether they acknowledge those benefits or not, as, unlike people of color, all Whites are “born to belonging.”5 These benefits cannot be given away, and good intentions don’t erase them, because White privilege is accorded not by an individual’s behavior or beliefs but because of the status of “White” in society, or what is often referred to as “Whiteness.”
Whiteness
To understand White privilege requires an explanation of the meaning behind “White” or what Whiteness represents. Whiteness is the power accorded to those deemed White. In the United States, Whiteness originated with plantation slavery, when “White” became synonymous with free and “Black” with slave. Policies in the United States then continued to place power, resources, opportunities, and achievements in the hands of Whites. Such practices and ideologies have given Whiteness special status, so that being “White” has been the way toward success. People from all racial and ethnic groups have fought to be identified as White, including Irish, Italians, Mexicans, Chinese, and Blacks who had a light enough skin tone that they could “pass” as White.6 For those who were denied White racial status, many sought White approval. George Lipsitz explains
