on the New TestamentApocrypha
| 1–2 Macc | 1–2 Maccabees |
| Bel | Bel and the Dragon |
| Jub | Jubilees |
| Sir | Sirach/ Ecclesiasticus |
| Sus | Susanna |
| Tob | Tobit |
Dead Sea Scrolls
| 11QT | Temple Scroll |
| 1Q34 | Liturgical Prayer a |
| 1Q34bis | Liturgical Prayer b |
| 1QH | Hodayot or Thanksgiving Hymns |
| 1QM | Milhamah or War Scroll |
| 1QpHab | Pesher Habakkuk |
| 1QpMic | Pesher Micah |
| 1QS | Serek Hayahad or Rule of the Community |
| 1QSa | Rule of the Congregation (Appendix a to 1QS) |
| 1QSb | Rule of Blessings (Appendix b to 1QS) |
| 4Q400 | Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice |
| 4QFlor | Florilegium |
| 4QPNah | Pesher Nahum |
| 4QpsMos | Pseudo-Moses |
| CD | Cairo Genizah copy of the Damascus Document |
| MMT | Miqsat Ma‘asê ha-Torah |
Josephus
| Ag.Ap. | Against Apion |
| Ant. | Jewish Antiquities |
| J.W. | Jewish War |
Old Testament Pseudepigrapha
| L.A.B. | Liber antiquitatum biblicarum (Pseudo-Philo) |
| Pss.Sol. | Psalms of Solomon |
| T. Dan | Testament of Dan |
| T.Benj. | Testament of Benjamin |
| T.Gad | Testament of Gad |
| T.Iss. | Testament of Issachar |
| T.Jos. | Testament of Joseph |
| T.Jud. | Testament of Judah |
| T.Levi | Testament of Levi |
| T.Mos. | Testament of Moses |
| T.Naph. | Testament of Naphtali |
| T.Reu. | Testament of Reuben |
| T.Sim. | Testament of Simeon |
Philo
| Alleg.Interp. | Allegorical Interpretation |
| Decalogue | On the Decalogue |
| Dreams | On Dreams |
| Drunkenness | On Drunkenness |
| Giants | On Giants |
| Heir | Who Is the Heir? |
| Her. | Quis rerum divinarum heres sit |
| Ios. | De Iosepho |
| Migr. | De migratione Abrahami |
| Migration | On the Migration of Abraham |
| Mos. | De vita Mosis |
| Mut. | De mutatione nominum |
| Opif. | De opificio mundi |
| Planting | On Planting |
| Prob. | Quod omnis probus liber sit |
| Providence | On Providence |
| QE | Quaestiones et solutiones in Exodum |
| QG | Quaestiones et solutiones in Genesin |
| Sacr. | De sacrificiis Abelis et Caini |
| Sacrifices | On the Sacrifices of Cain and Abel |
| Somn. | De somniis |
| Spec. | De specialibus legibus |
| Spec. Laws | On the Special Laws |
| Worse | That the Worse Attacks the Better |
Seneca
| Ben. | De beneficiis |
Introduction
Is the New Testament responsible for anti-Semitism? Do the New Testament writings give rise to belligerent behavior or hateful thoughts toward Jewish people? Ever since World War II and the Jewish Holocaust, New Testament scholars have been wrestling with these kinds of questions. Most studies, however, have focused on the gospel accounts, Acts, or the Pauline epistles. Very little has been written specifically on the epistle to the Hebrews. 1 The goal of this dissertation is to determine whether the epistle to the Hebrews is anti-Semitic, anti-Judaic or supersessionistic, and if so, to what extent.
The topic itself poses several challenges. First, there does not seem to be a universal definition of anti-Semitism, nor any real consensus in the validity of distinguishing it from anti-Judaism. Second, the polemic in Hebrews seems to be directed not to the Jewish people, but rather to fundamental Jewish institutions.2 Would then, an attack on the Jewish faith and ritual constitute anti-Semitism? Third, it is clear that the author of Hebrews3 sees both continuity and discontinuity between Christianity and Judaism. Though there are indeed strong words against the Levitical priesthood, Mosaic Covenant, and Levitical sacrifices,4 there are also words of praise for Jewish men and women in the history of Israel.5 Though the author speaks against the law,6 he frequently quotes Scripture to support his arguments.7 Though he seems to encourage his readers to separate from Judaism,8 he also promotes a faith that is deeply rooted in Jewish thought and history. How then are we to understand his polemic in light of Christianity’s birth from her Jewish roots? Is the author advocating supersessionism?
Defining Anti-Semitism and Anti-Judaism
Anti-Semitism versus Anti-Judaism
John Gager makes a clear distinction between anti-Semitism and anti-Judaism. He defines anti-Semitism as “hostile statements about Jews and Judaism on the part of Gentiles.” He defines “anti-Judaism” as a primarily religious and theological
