assistance and necessary disability services, for example, compliance with IDEA, Section 504 plan (IDEA, 2004a; DREDF, n.d.).
3. Provide services without delay.
4. Consider the student’s individual levels and skill sets with accommodations that do not give him or her unfair advantage.
5. Inform, value, and ensure family input (for example, trained interpreters and translated documents).
According to the U.S. Department of Education (2017b), ELs speak more than four hundred different languages, with Spanish, Arabic, Vietnamese, Chinese, and Haitian-Creole being the most prevalent. In addition, 13.8 percent of ELs (approximately 665,000 students) also receive special education services (McFarland et al., 2017). There are different levels of understanding and expression among students with disabilities learning to speak English (Pransky, 2009; Williams & Martinez, 2019).
ELs may have learning and emotional difficulties and challenges that place them on the special education spectrum (Burr et al., 2015; Hart, 2009). Inclusion classroom teachers should provide culturally responsive pedagogy that offers ways for ELs to learn. Honoring diversity, relating to a student’s culture, and respecting other cultures are non-negotiable. Inclusion educators can monitor behavior and manage classroom procedures with instructional decisions that reduce barriers for ELs as students work together in diverse groups (Goldston, 2017).
Even though inclusion settings have clear and consistent evidence for substantial short- and long-term benefits for students with and without disabilities, researchers, practitioners, and legislators accept and interpret its implementation differently across settings (Hehir et al., 2016). Societal attitudes, legislation, educational philosophies, administrative directives, family involvement, and teacher expectations are all factors that influence the implementation and effectiveness of inclusion school programs. Inclusion classrooms provide students with different support systems for peer relationships, along with access to meaningful curricula (Causton-Theoharis, 2009; Karten, 2017b; Schifter & Hehir, 2018).
Some teachers and administrators embrace making changes that allow learners maximum benefits, while other staff need more direction, support, and reinforcement. In addition, schools should view students through a growth paradigm, with the assessments and recommendations that consider limitations coexisting with strengths (Shepherd, Kervick, & Salembier, 2015). Even though common legislation exists, educators must individually define, implement, support, and monitor inclusion through a variety of collaborative applications. No one method is appropriate for each student or each inclusion classroom. Educators should explore a variety of strategies to determine which ones create the desired connections for students and the curriculum, and consider each student’s levels, interests, and diverse abilities.
Prior Knowledge and Metacognition
Students might stop learning when teachers do not connect abstract concepts to their prior knowledge and interests. Prior knowledge targets learning gaps and misconceptions, and bridges previously learned concepts to the new learning (Center for Teaching Innovation, 2020). Motivation or the desire to listen to the lessons can be increased by generating student connections so they see the relevance of the content to their own lives (Ferlazzo, 2015). Teachers who confidently know their students, the subject matter, and the best delivery approaches realize the value of applying metacognitive strategies, which encourage students to think about their thinking. It’s not OK to just mark an answer correct or incorrect; students must understand why an answer is right or wrong. Metacognitive strategies involve figuring out how you learn and asking self-reflective questions (Learning Center, 2020). Metacognition includes self-check exercises, self-talk, self-regulation, and more reflective practices. Productivity is increased when students have strong metacognitive skills and assume responsibility for their learning with realistic self-perceptions, responsibilities, and mindsets (Darling-Hammond, Flook, Cook-Harvey, Barron, & Osher, 2019). Research notes that self-reflection yields positive effects for students’ academic and social development (Cavilla, 2017; Joseph, 2010; McCormick, Dimmitt, & Sullivan, 2013).
In addition, administrators who offer reflective professional development assist staff to develop their practices by facilitating rather than mandating the learning (Marvel, 2018). General and special educators, related staff such as occupational and physical therapists, mobility trainers, and instructional assistants can then help connect the learning strategies to the inclusion learners. Just as students need connections, so do teachers and other staff need connections to collaborate and apply professional development. In addition, families who are kept in the loop can then multiply the reflective practices by sharing them with home environments. These stakeholders should address the following questions from students, general and special education teachers, administrators, and families.
Students
• Do I ask questions during the lesson, or do I just pretend that I am getting it with lots of smiling and meaningless head nodding?”
• Do I care about learning or just about the grade?”
• Who can I go to for additional help?”
General and Special Education Teachers
• What do we know about our students’ strengths?”
• Are our lessons effectively reaching all students or are some students lost due to pacing or complexity?”
• What core instruction lesson elements can we change, repeat, or abandon?”
• How can we incorporate evidence-based practices to strengthen students’ skills?”
• Do we plan and share strategies with co-teachers, paraprofessionals, related staff, and families?”
• Who can we collaborate with for more ideas?”
Administrators
• Are we supporting our teachers with appropriate student data, professional development, resources, and planning time without overwhelming them with the latest best practices?”
• Do we collaborate with our staff in an atmosphere that values a team or instructional coaching mentality?”
Families
• Do we support the school and teachers in their inclusion efforts?”
• Is there an open line of communication between us and the school?”
• Who can offer additional resources or support?”
Figure 1.1 (page 20) offers an inclusion domains framework. This framework provides educators with a concrete way to reflect on their current inclusion practices, encourage the (sometimes) tough conversations, and collaboratively develop more inclusive plans for moving forward. It is important to keep in mind that each inclusion domain is evolutionary, and each inclusion environment is unique and dependent on staff experiences; student levels and motivation; and classroom, school, and family supports. Inclusion is evolutionary.
The five inclusion domains include the following.
1. Collaborative practices
2. Instruction
