in the north-western corner of this province, were also used in the 20th century architecture (Rosso Porfirico, upper Jurassic of Verzegnis or Persichino, upper Devonian of Timau).
Calacata and Cipollino
Regional metamorphic rock (calcite marble, very fine grain-size). Different varieties of marble are distinguished, mainly for colour and arrangement of the veins. Colour: white ground with gold-yellowish irregular veins (Calacata), green or white ground with undulating bands of light to dark green (Cipollino). Mineral: calcite. Decay morphologies: disaggregation, cracking, sulphate skin formation. Geology: “Autoctono toscano metamorfico” made of different epimetamorphic formations from Carboniferous to Paleogene; in particular these marbles are referred to “Cipollini” (lower Cretaceous – Oligocene). Quarry: different sites of Apuanian Alps according to the varieties. Calacata: Carrara district; Cipollino: Versilia – Lucca province, Cardoso and Arni districts.
Use: mainly polished slabs for façade cladding (Cipollino: former Palazzo della Montecatini, G. Ponti and A. Fornaroli 1936, Milan) of for interior cladding and for flooring (Calacata: Casa Wassermann).
Conclusion
The increase of the use of natural stones and marbles in the Thirties of 20th century, after two decades 46of “artificial stone”, was led by architects of the milanese school (Lancia, Muzio, Ponti, Portaluppi etc.). The use of natural stone was in agreement with the policy focused to improve the utilization of products of the Italian territory; this policy brought the opening of new quarries, but also brought the exploitation of ancient ones using up-to-date methods. The architects mainly paid attention to employ each stone for a specific purpose (cladding, floor, upright structural member, decoration etc.) according to its features (origin, mineralogy, texture, workability, resistance). The combined use of different stones in a single building was the obvious consequence of this option. In addition, the orientation of the cut of veined or brecciated blocks was accurately chosen in order to obtain slabs where the disposition of veins and colours was improved. Finally, in some cases, the stone elements were designed and manufactured to be exactly set only in one particular position of the whole building.
References
Biondelli D., Bugini R., Folli L., Saltari V. 2004a. I materiali del liberty a Milano. In: Biscontin G, Driussi G (eds) Architettura e materiali del Novecento. Arcadia, pp 27–36.
Biondelli D., Bugini R., Folli L., Saltari V. 2004b. I materiali di Piero Portaluppi. In: Biscontin G, Driussi G (eds.) Architettura e materiali del Novecento. Arcadia, pp 37–48.
Gramigna G., Mazza S. 2001. Milano – Un secolo di architettura milanese. Hoepli, p. 597.
Grandi M., Pracchi A. 1980. Milano – Guida all’architettura moderna. Zanichelli, p. 421.
ISPRA Istituto Superiore Protezione e Ricerca Ambientale 2012. Cartografia Geologica d’Italia scala 1:50000. http://www.ispra.it.
ISPRA Istituto Superiore Protezione e Ricerca Ambientale 1976. Cartografia Geologica d’Italia scala 1:100000. http://www.ispra.it.
Peverelli G. (ed.) 1939. Atti Convegno Nazionale presso Mostra Autarchica del Minerale Italiano. Il marmo, p. 127.
Peverelli G., Squarzina F. (eds.) 1939. Marmi Italiani. Federazione Fascista Industriali, p. 156.
Pieri M. 1966. Marmologia. Hoepli, p. 693.
Pierini O. S., Isastia A. 2017. Case milanesi 1923– 1973. Hoepli, p. 512.
47
CHARACTERIZATION AND DETERIORATION OF MATERIALS OF RUMELIFENERI FORTRESS IN ISTANBUL
Kadir Ekinci, Ahsen Karagöl, Gulberk G. Küçükosmanoğlu, Isil Polat Pekmezci
IN: SIEGESMUND, S. & MIDDENDORF, B. (EDS.): MONUMENT FUTURE: DECAY AND CONSERVATION OF STONE.
– PROCEEDINGS OF THE 14TH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON THE DETERIORATION AND CONSERVATION OF STONE –
VOLUME I AND VOLUME II. MITTELDEUTSCHER VERLAG 2020.
Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
Abstract
The historic fortresses and bastions that constitute the defense system of Bosporus, have ceased to be used by military units after losing their strategic importance in time and later they have been abandoned. Rumelifeneri Fortress which is a part of this defense system dates back to the 18th century. Today the most prominent problems of the fortress are; the ongoing process of deterioration caused by environmental impacts, due to its location by the sea and the uncontrolled influx of visitors. In terms of the study, to make a complete description of deterioration types, firstly a deterioration mapping is prepared. Samples were taken from different parts of the structure and chemical, physical and petrographic analyses were conducted in order to analyze the characterization of the original materials and types and degrees of deterioration. As a result of the analyses, the types and degrees of deterioration observed in building stone basaltic andesites, the main building material of the structure, were identified and classified. The characterization of the mortars and plasters are also completed; such as binder, aggregate ratios and the aggregate size distribution and the types of the aggregates. According to these results, suggestions and interventions have been developed for the parts of the structure that should be primarily conserved. This study aims to draw attention to these structures which are an important part of the historical and cultural heritage of Eurasia, by analizing characterization and deterioration of materials of Rumelifeneri Fortress.
Keywords: Cultural Heritage, Deterioration of Igneous Rock, Military Architecture, Mortar Characterization, Stone Conservation, Waterfront Fortresses
General Information and Description of the Site
The Bosphorus, forming the continental boundary between Asia and Europe, is an approximately thirty km long natural waterway connecting the Black Sea to the Marmara Sea. Fortifications were built on both sides of the Bosphorus starting from the Byzantine period. Rumelifeneri Fortress is an authentic example of the Bosphorus’ defense system dating back to 18th century during the Ottoman period. The fortress was built on a promontory volcanic rock near Rumelifeneri Lighthouse located at the northernmost point on the European side of the Bosphorus. (Figure 1).
The fortress has a rectangular plan with two beveled corners on the seafront with approximate dimensions of 55 m to 70 m (Karadağ 2003) (Figure 2). Stones were used as ashlar stones on faces and as rubble in the core of the casemate walls.
48Bonding timbers were used all around the walls on the springing line level of embrasure arches and 1.85 meters above this level. Arches of embrasures and the dome in the eastern tower were built with bricks measuring 34 × 34 × 3 centimeters.
Figure 1: Rumelifeneri Fortress (Url-1 2017).
