of water (ha...Figure 3.8 Schematics of various tank configurations; (a) single medium syst...Figure 3.9 Concrete TES system.Figure 3.10 Solar storage tanks: (a) heat storage tank tied directly to both...Figure 3.11 Schematic of a cylindrical combined water‐rock storage.Figure 3.12 Schematic of the operation of an ATES system.Figure 3.13 Some environmental benefits of ATES.Figure 3.14 An ATES system combined with a heat pump.Figure 3.15 Operational principles for ATES systems using heat pumps.Figure 3.16 Cross‐section representation of a typical salinity‐gradient sola...Figure 3.17 Evacuated solar collector TES system. (a) Evacuated solar collec...Figure 3.18 PCM classification.Figure 3.19 Process for using GSA zeolites as a heat storage media.Figure 3.20 PCM and TCM‐based TES system storage capacities by temperature....Figure 3.21 Solar TES pipe using a PCM.Figure 3.22 (a) Nodule for STL system, and (b) capsule for STL latent TES.Figure 3.23 A latent TES integrated with a heat pump.Figure 3.24 Operating strategies. (a) Full‐storage, (b) partial‐storage load...Figure 3.25 Sample demand profiles for the design, full storage and partial ...Figure 3.26 Comparison of water and ice CTESs, showing that the capacity of ...Figure 3.27 Variation in tank volume (expressed as the ratio between ice and...Figure 3.28 (a) PlusICE™ beam for CTES applications. (b) Centralized and loc...Figure 3.29 CTES cost relationship.Figure 3.30 Schematic of a chilled‐water production and distribution system....Figure 3.31 Cost relationship for chilled‐water CTES.Figure 3.32 Series tank configuration for chiller‐water CTES.Figure 3.33 Series (a) and parallel (b) tank configurations for chilled‐wate...Figure 3.34 Stratified tank configuration.Figure 3.35 Operation of heat pump CTES.Figure 3.36 Ice‐on‐pipe CTES for process refrigeration.Figure 3.37 Low‐pressure portion of an ice‐on‐pipe CTES for process refriger...Figure 3.38 High‐pressure portion of an ice‐on‐pipe CTES.Figure 3.39 Ice harvester system.Figure 3.40 Cost relationship for ice harvesters.Figure 3.41 Glycol ice CTES system.Figure 3.42 Modular ice storage tanks and some of their characteristics.Figure 3.43 Encapsulated ice storage tanks.Figure 3.44 MaximICE ice‐slurry system.Figure 3.45 CYFLIP ice CTES.Figure 3.46 Instantaneous charge capacity of Cryogel ice balls (in tons per ...Figure 3.47 Instantaneous discharge capacity of Cryogel ice balls (in tons p...Figure 3.48 Atmospheric ice ball, single tank (series) TES system.Figure 3.49 Pressurized ice ball, single tank (series) TES system.Figure 3.50 ILIQ controller for manual control.Figure 3.51 (a) Ice thickness sensor for external melt systems, and (b) wate...Figure 3.52 Illustration of partially buried, bermed heat storage tank. Appr...4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 The relation between the exergetic temperature factor τ and ...Figure 4.2 Three basic types of thermal storage. (a) A closed system in whic...Figure 4.3 The three stages in a simple heat storage process: charging perio...Figure 4.4 An example in which two cases are considered. Shown are the charg...Figure 4.5 The overall heat storage process, showing energy parameters (term...Figure 4.6 The three periods in the overall heat storage process (charging, ...Figure 4.7 Energy values (in kJ) for the example, showing the three modes of...Figure 4.8 Exergy values (in kJ) for the example, showing the three modes of...Figure 4.9 The overall heat storage process for a general TES system. Shown ...Figure 4.10 Energy‐efficiency‐to‐exergy‐efficiency ratio, ψ/η, as ...Figure 4.11 Temperature‐time profiles assumed for the charging and dischargi...Figure 4.12 Observed values for the temperature and volumetric flow rate of ...Figure 4.13 Variation of several calculated energy and exergy quantities and...Figure 4.14 A vertically stratified storage having a linear temperature dist...Figure 4.15 A vertically stratified storage having a stepped temperature dis...Figure 4.16 The three‐zone temperature‐distribution models. (a) General, (b)...Figure 4.17 The realistic vertically stratified temperature distribution con...Figure 4.18 Variation with the mixed‐storage temperature Tm of the modified ...Figure 4.19 Illustration for three ranges of values of the mixed‐storage tem...Figure 4.20 Illustration for a series of values of the mixed‐storage tempera...Figure 4.21 The three processes in a general CTES system: charging (left), s...Figure 4.22 A schematic representation of an encapsulated ITES system. Sourc...Figure 4.23 A load profile diagram for an encapsulated ITES system (see [114...Figure 4.24 Ice‐on‐coil TES experimental setup. Top (a) and front (b) views ...Figure 4.25 Schematic representation of the mathematical model [122].Figure 4.26 Thermal resistance networks for period I (a) and period II (b) [...Figure 4.27 Effects of inlet temperature and flow rate of heat transfer flui...Figure 4.28 The closed TES system considered in evaluating optimal discharge...Figure 4.29 Discharge efficiencies, accounting for pump work, for adiabatic ...Figure 4.30 Discharge efficiencies for nonadiabatic TES systems with and wit...Figure 4.31 Illustration of a solar pond.Figure 4.32 A photo of experimental solar pond.Figure 4.33 Illustration of all heat transfers in experimental solar pond.Figure 4.34 Illustration of the three zones in the experimental solar pond....Figure 4.35 Monthly temperature distributions at various heights of the sola...Figure 4.36 Density variation of water in the solar pond.Figure 4.37 Monthly variation of energy and exergy contents of the solar pon...Figure 4.38 Monthly variation of energy and exergy efficiencies of the solar...
5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Grid structuring for two flow cases. (a) 500 cells of equal size ...Figure 5.2 Velocity profiles for two flow cases, characterized by the grid s...Figure 5.3 Velocity profile with a single time step of 25 seconds.Figure 5.4 Solution procedure flow chart for the coupled pressure‐based solu...Figure 5.5 Cross‐sectional views of the cell density in the (a) radial plane...Figure 5.6 Temperature distributions (in K) for the storage tank at four hou...Figure 5.7 Velocity profiles (in m/s) for the storage tank at four hour inte...Figure 5.8 Volume‐averaged temperature in the storage tank over the 24‐hour ...Figure 5.9 Total energy storage and thermal energy loss over the 24‐hour coo...Figure 5.10 Total exergy storage and thermal exergy loss over the 24-hour co...Figure 5.11 Variation with time of the energy and exergy efficiencies of the...Figure 5.12 Schematic of physical domain of a thermal storage.Figure 5.13 Views of the computational grid for the hot water storage in the...Figure 5.14 Temperature distributions (in K) in a thermal storage tank at se...Figure 5.15 Temperature distributions (in K) in a thermal storage tank at se...Figure 5.16 Velocity contours in a thermal storage tank at selected times fo...Figure 5.17 Velocity contours in a thermal storage tank at selected times fo...Figure 5.18 Volume‐averaged temperatures of the water and insulation for a f...Figure 5.19 Volume‐averaged temperatures of the water and insulation for a f...Figure 5.20 Loss of thermal energy from the storage to the surroundings, for...Figure 5.21 Energy efficiencies of the storage, for two flow rates.Figure 5.22 Exergy lost from the storage to the surroundings due to heat lea...Figure 5.23 Exergy destruction in the storage due to irreversibilities and e...Figure 5.24 Exergy efficiencies of the storage, for two flow rates.Figure 5.25 Grid structure of the two‐dimensional surface representing the i...Figure 5.26 Variation in density in the cylinder at time t = 0. The darker r...Figure 5.27 Liquid and solid fractions in the storage domain at selected tim...Figure 5.28 Total energy transferred to the cylinder from the heated wall ov...Figure 5.29 Exergy efficiency and liquid fraction of the melting process wit...Figure 5.30 Quantities of exergy stored, destroyed, and input with wall heat...Figure 5.31 Experimental apparatus used for the charging and discharging of ...Figure 5.32 Wall grid volumes for the computational domain considered for a ...Figure 5.33 Views of the grid cell distributions, for (a) the axial, or flow...Figure 5.34 Comparison of numerical temperature profiles at three locations ...Figure 5.35 Liquid fraction as a function of time for the grid size independ...Figure 5.36 Liquid fraction as a function of time for the time step independ...Figure 5.37 Variation of liquid fraction for the charging and discharging ca...Figure 5.38 Variation of the energy stored and the heat generated through vi...Figure 5.39 Variation of the energy recovered and the heat generated through...Figure 5.40 Variation of energy and exergy efficiencies with dimensionless t...Figure 5.41 Variation of energy and exergy efficiencies with dimensionless t...Figure 5.42 Variation with dimensionless time t* of exergy stored, destroyed...Figure 5.43 Variation with dimensionless time t* of exergy recovered, destro...Figure 5.44 Exergy destroyed via viscous dissipation and heat transfer, and ...Figure 5.45 Energy and exergy efficiencies at the completion of the overall ...Figure 5.46 Overall energy and exergy efficiencies for charging and discharg...Figure 5.47 Exergy destroyed for several storage capsule geometries by visco...Figure 5.48 Physical model of ice TES system.Figure 5.49 Segment of ice TES system used for numerical simulation.Figure 5.50 Fluid velocity vectors around the PCM capsules.Figure 5.51 Variation with axial coordinate of the heat transfer correlation...Figure 5.52 Variation of Nusselt number with
