are similar to other vertebrate species and include organ biopsy, sex determination, and retrieval of gastrointestinal foreign bodies (Gentz 2007). An oral speculum may be used during gastroscopy to prevent trauma to the endoscope. To visualize the heart, liver, urinary bladder, and gastrointestinal tract via celioscopy, a paramedian incision has been recommended, whereas a lateral approach is preferred to visualize the gonads, adrenal glands, and kidneys (Gentz 2007). Celioscopy should take no more than 10 minutes to minimize anesthetic risks (Chai 2015b). Saline insufflation or carbon dioxide insufflation can be used to improve visualization during celioscopy (Chai 2015a).
Telemetry and Microchip Implantation
Passive integrated transponder devices (PIT tags) have been placed in captive and free‐ranging amphibians. PIT tags are typically surgically implanted intracoelomically in urodela and caecilians, while they can be implanted subcutaneously in anurans (Wright and Whitaker 2001a). In hellbenders, subcutaneous implantation on the dorsal aspect of the tail has been described (Norton et al. 2014). Cosmetic implantation sites include the ventral thigh on either side or deep to the parotid gland in anurans (Wright and Whitaker 2001a). When inserting the microchip subcutaneously, close the insertion site with tissue glue to prevent osmotic imbalance (Norton et al. 2014). For intracoelomic implantation, make a paramedian coelotomy incision rather than inserting the microchip blindly into the coelom to avoid internal organ trauma (Wright and Whitaker 2001a). Some researchers have expressed concerns regarding microchip implantation in free‐ranging amphibians of small size (Funk et al. 2005), but no reference was cited to document adverse effects of microchip implantation. A marking technique using a gun to inject pressurized fluorescent pigment was recommended (Schlaepfer 1998). Alternative marking techniques include subcutaneous visible implant elastomer tags, fluorescent pigments injected with a needle and detected with ultraviolet lights, or toe clipping, but external identification techniques can become illegible (Gibbons and Andrews 2004).
Radiotransmitters may be implanted intracoelomically (Johnson 2006) or placed externally in amphibians (Norton et al. 2014). Due to the risks associated with external radiotransmitters, many researchers opt for intracoelomic implantation. Incise the ventral skin, coelomic muscles, and coelomic lining and insert the radiotransmitter into the coelomic cavity (Norton et al. 2014). Close the muscular layer with polydioxanone suture and the skin layer with nylon. Researchers should consider removing the radiotransmitter at the completion of their study to prevent chronic coelomitis (Norton et al. 2014).
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