on racial differences.
Box 1 Scholars: Black/African-Centered Psychology
Na’im Akbar, PhD
Faye Belgrave, PhD
Kevin Cokley, PhD
Cheryl Grills, PhD
Asa Hilliard, PhD
Kobi Kambon, PhD
Linda James Myers, PhD
Wade Nobles, PhD
Joseph White, PhD
Robert Lee Williams, PhD
Cross-Cultural and Multicultural Counseling and Psychology
In 1982, Derald Wing Sue and six of his colleagues ignited the cross-cultural and multicultural counseling movement when they published the article “Position Paper: Cross-Cultural Counseling Competencies.” Sue et al. (1982) argued that traditional mental health practices (including counseling) and research were irrelevant to ethnic minorities. They proposed a push for new approaches to counseling that would be more appropriate for the culturally different. Sue et al.’s framework for cross-cultural counseling led to the triad of components of cultural competence: cultural knowledge, cultural awareness, and cross-cultural skills. A plethora of literature emerged from Sue et al.’s article. Pedersen (1990) even described the cross-cultural and multicultural counseling movement as the fourth force in counseling because of its rapid growth and visibility in the field.
In addition to components of cultural competence, the cross-cultural counseling movement focuses on studying similarities and differences in individual psychological functioning based on cultural and/or ethnic background. Scholars and researchers of cross-cultural counseling and multicultural counseling regard culture as essential to psychological functioning, an integral context for psychological development and behavior. Multicultural counseling specifically addresses factors within the counseling process when the client and counselor represent different cultures. This strengths-based approach considers the sociocultural factors that impact the client and counselor. The client’s and the counselor’s race and racism are considered, but the framework for multicultural and cross-cultural counseling is culture, not race. See Box 2 for cross-cultural scholars.
In 1972, another group formed specifically to address the issues of Black and Brown counselors and clients. The new group, the Association for Non-White Concerns in Personnel and Guidance, became a separate division of the American Personnel and Guidance Association, which is now the American Counseling Association (ACA). Before the group was formed, its members had limited representation and no voting rights on the board of directors of the American Personnel and Guidance Association. The individual most often identified as the father of the Association for Non-White Concerns in Personnel and Guidance is Samuel H. Johnson. The name of the group was changed to the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD) in 1985 to more accurately reflect its efforts. The mission of the association is
Box 2 Scholars: Cross-Cultural/Multicultural Counseling
Patricia Arredondo, PhD
Donald Atkinson, PhD
Robert Carter, PhD
Madonna Constantine, PhD
Michael D’Andrea, PhD
Donald Pope Davis, PhD
Janet Helms, PhD
Allen Ivey, PhD
Courtland Lee, PhD
Don C. Locke, PhD
Paul Pedersen, PhD
Joseph Ponterotto, PhD
Gargi Roysicar, PhD
Derald Wing Sue, PhD
Clemmont E. Vontress, PhD
[To] recognize the human diversity and multicultural nature of our society;
To enhance the development, human rights, and the psychological health of ethnic/racial populations and all people as critical to the social, educational, political, professional, and personal reform in the United States and globally;
To identify and work to eliminate conditions that create barriers to the individual development of marginalized populations;
To develop, implement, and/or foster interest in charitable, scientific, and educational programs designed to further the interests of marginalized populations;
To secure equality and access of treatment, advancement, qualifications, and status [for] individuals and families in counseling, wellness, and mental health work;
To publish a journal and other scientific-educational and professional materials with the purpose of raising the standards of all who work in providing counseling, wellness, and mental health. (AMCD, n.d., “Our Mission”)
In April 1991, AMCD approved Sue et al.’s (1982) rationale for a multicultural and/ or cross-cultural perspective in counseling. AMCD proposed 31 multicultural counseling competencies and strongly encouraged ACA (then known as the American Association of Counseling and Development) to adopt the competencies in accreditation criteria. The competencies were approved and became a standard for counseling training and practice (Sue, Arredondo, and McDavis, 1982).
Box 3 Scholars: Social Justice Counseling and Advocacy
Mary Smith Arnold, PhD
Fred Bemak, PhD
Stuart Chen-Hayes, PhD
Rita Chung, PhD
Reese House, PhD
Michael Hutchins, PhD
Mark Kiselica, PhD
Judith Lewis, PhD
Manivong Ratts, PhD
Anneliese Singh, PhD
Rebecca Toporek, PhD
Edil Torres-Rivera, PhD
Social Justice Counseling and Advocacy
In 1994, a group of counseling professionals convened to better commit to multiculturalism and broader social justice issues. The group members represented many organizations within ACA, such as AMCD, the Association for Specialists in Group Work, and the National Career Development Association. After numerous meetings with ACA leadership, the group became an organizational affiliate in 1999 and was called Counselors for Social Justice (CSJ; J. Anderson et al., 2015). In 2000, the ACA Governing Council accepted CSJ as an official division of ACA, making it an additional division devoted to the concerns of Black and Brown populations, but with a broader focus than just racism. With social justice as a focal point, CSJ advocates for
